Dorothy Day lived nontraditionally for a Catholic, yet she has a profound influence on many Catholics today. She is even being considered for canonization. She founded the Catholic Worker Movement, including the “hospitality houses” that serve as purposeful communities.

Catholic Social Justice

In order to understand Dorothy Day, it is necessary to first have a brief primer on Catholic Social Justice. Catholic Social Teaching is a canonical set of beliefs about social issues. The modern history of Catholic Social Teaching began in 1891 with the publication of Rerum Novarum, written by Pope Leo XIII. This papal encyclical (a letter written by a pope) responded to problems caused by the Industrial Revolution. Common themes of Catholic Social Teaching are caring for the environment, somewhat left-leaning economic views, caring for the poor, and pacifism. Catholic Social Justice is simply Catholic Social Teaching put into practice.

Whereas the clergy are primarily responsible for coming up with the theological reasoning behind the church’s social teachings, laypeople—Catholics who are not priests—are usually the ones who channel these beliefs into action. This may include protesting, supporting certain policies, setting up charities and programs to help the less fortunate, and exemplifying Catholic Social Teaching principles in their everyday lives.

Pre-Catholicism Dorothy Day

Day’s road to becoming a Catholic was a long one. She was born on November 8, 1897, in New York City. She became a journalist, a vocation she would continue for her entire adult life. She was raised in an atheistic household. Despite this, she was interested in theology from an early age. She even convinced her parents to let her be baptized into the Episcopalian faith as a preteen. Still, she did not commit to any religion long-term, as she was always busy furthering social causes. In the end, she synthesized her anarchism, Catholic Social Teaching, and even aspects of communism to form a mission plan and change the world.

Journey to Faith

Day was arrested for protesting on several occasions throughout her life. One incarceration in particular helped kindle a spark that would eventually lead to her conversion. Day was arrested for participating in a suffragist protest outside of the White House in 1917. “Suffragist” refers to people (typically women) who demanded that the US government allow women to vote. Back in 1917, there was no federal law allowing women to vote in elections.

Day practiced a political strategy known as civil disobedience. Civil disobedience is most famous for being the preferred method of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and many (perhaps most) other civil rights movement activists. It essentially means that protesters do not comply with the police, but do not resort to violence, either. Civil disobedience comes with the risk of arrest.

This particular incarceration was much harder on Day than her other stints in jail. The suffragists were tortured, force-fed, and made to live in inhumane conditions. Day was in solitary confinement for long periods of time. Her only respite was the Bible in her cell.

As the years went on, Day had positive experiences attending Catholic churches. She also met Catholic intellectuals who helped inform her personal approach to social justice. Praying the rosary helped her find peace during tumultuous times in her life.

Dorothy Day’s Conversion

Dorothy Day baptized her only daughter into the Catholic Church before she herself became a Catholic. That was in July of 1927. Day was not far behind, however; she converted to Catholicism in December of 1928. One may think, why did she wait so long to convert? Perhaps her political beliefs had been holding her back.

As an activist for social justice, she naturally crossed paths with communist activists. Day associated with communists her entire life, and shared some beliefs with them. However, Catholicism is staunchly against state communism. The main reason for this is that Catholicism considers private property to be a right. Communism is often anti-religion as well. Day was passionate about workers’ rights, much like the communists. She even felt frustrated that she could not participate in the movement due to her religion.

“The Communist Party cared about the welfare of the poor but was unequivocal in its opposition to religion…[Day] asked the elderly Spanish priest at the small church that she attended during the winter months in Manhattan, Our Lady of Guadalupe on West 14th Street, about this troubling dichotomy. Father Zachary Saint-Martin’s counsel was reassuring. ‘Keep your job,’ he told her. [Day was employed as a communist paper at one time.] ‘You have a child to support. That must be your priority, and if your faith is strong enough, there is no need to worry about anything else.’”

Dorothy Day: Dissenting Voice of the American Century, by John Loughery and Blythe Randolph

Collaborations With Peter Maurin

Day met Peter Maurin in December of 1932. This meeting was fortuitous. Maurin taught Day about Catholic Social Justice and she in turn was able to continue her activism in a manner conducive to her Catholicism.

Their beliefs meshed well together. Day and Maurin could be described as soulmates, but without the romance. Together they started a newspaper called The Catholic Worker. To this day, an issue of The Catholic Worker only costs one cent. The title is a play on The Daily Worker, a communist newspaper. The Catholic Social Justice activists and communist activists would engage in light ribbing as they each hawked their periodicals in the streets.

The Catholic Worker was partially made up of articles that expressed Day’s views on Catholic Social Justice. She wrote much of the paper, but others contributed as well. Gradually, a movement began to form. This was called the Catholic Worker Movement.

“The aim of the Catholic Worker movement is to live in accordance with the justice and charity of Jesus Christ. Our sources are the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures as handed down in the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, with our inspiration coming from the lives of the saints, ‘men and women outstanding in holiness, living witnesses to Your unchanging love.’ When we examine our society, which is generally called capitalist (because of its methods of producing and controlling wealth)…we find it far from God’s justice.”

The Catholic Worker, May 2019 issue

The Catholic Worker Movement

The purpose of the Catholic Worker Movement is to:

• Examine unfair systems, such as most forms of capitalism.
• Promote workers’ rights.
• Condemn the proliferation of war and weapons.
• Start eco-friendly ways of making a living that are not dependent on corporations or the government.
• Provide for the impoverished.

In 1933, Day and Maurin began setting up places where people could live. These were the first “houses of hospitality.” The founders chose to live with the bare minimum, putting money and labor towards providing for others in need. Today there are over 100 houses of hospitality. Some specialize in certain services, such as housing corporate whistleblowers, or serving as soup kitchens.

Day believed in subsidiarity. Subsidiarity is a major part of Catholic Social Teaching. It is the principle that problems should be solved at the lowest level, as opposed to letting large government agencies handle every aspect of daily life. The New York City government did not approve of how many people Day allowed to live in her house of hospitality. She did not like that she was burdened with housing laws when she was just trying to run a homeless shelter. She went to court and was frustrated that she would not even be able to state her case for a long time, due to the docket being full of similarly frivolous cases.

The Canonization Controversy

Canonization is the process of becoming a saint. Dorothy Day is in the process of canonization. However, there are aspects of her life that make canonization complicated. Firstly, she had an abortion. Her books do not mention this specifically, instead referring to that time in her life as a dark one for vague reasons. She published two of her memoirs in the 1950s and 1960s when abortion was generally not mentioned except behind closed doors. What is evident is that she was pressured into having an abortion, and regretted it deeply.

For years, she thought the procedure had made her infertile. She was overjoyed when she finally became pregnant again years later. Her daughter’s name was Tamara Theresa. The father was against Catholicism, which was becoming more and more important to Day. He was also not interested in fatherhood. Day was heartbroken that she had to cut him off, but continuing the relationship also made her miserable.

Aside from the abortion, and the birth out of wedlock, there are political reasons why Day may not look like an ideal saint on paper. Her FBI record calls her a communist, and even “recommended that [Day] be considered for custodial detention in the event of a national emergency.”

Canonization Concerns From Days’ Supporters

Dorothy Day’s life was not free from controversy, making canonization complex. With that said, some who oppose her canonization are supporters of Day. Some critics of her canonization say that sainthood would sanitize her image.

The high cost of canonization is also cause for controversy. Some people believe that Day would have preferred that money be spent on the poor. Day once said, “Don’t trivialize me by trying to make me a saint.” On the one hand, this quotation can be used to show how humble Day was. On the other hand, some take the quotation at face value.

On the subject of canonization sanitizing Day’s image, there have indeed been efforts to explain away her abortion, as well as her political beliefs. Still, those who justify her canonization do make valid points.

Call for Canonization

“It is a well-known fact that Dorothy Day procured an abortion before her conversion to the Faith. She regretted it every day of her life. After her conversion from a life akin to that of the pre-converted Augustine of Hippo, she proved a stout defender of human life…I contend that her abortion should not preclude her cause…”

“It has also been noted that Dorothy Day often seemed friendly to political groups hostile to the Church, for example, communists, socialists, and anarchists. It is necessary to divide her political stances in two spheres: pre-and post-conversion. After her conversion, she was neither a member of such political groupings nor did she approve of their tactics or any denial of private property. Yet, it must be said, she often held opinions in common with them. What they held in common was a common respect for the poor and a desire for economic equity…So much were her ‘politics’ based on an ideology of nonviolence that they may be said to be apolitical.”

Cardinal John O’Conner, Catholic New York, March 16, 2000, quoting from his February 7th letter to the Holy See

O’Conner brings up Saint Augustine of Hippo because he was famously unchaste until he turned to God. He is arguably one of the most influential saints in all of Catholic theology. Like Augustine, Day wrote about chastity being difficult but important. O’Conner arguably does falter when he asserts that Day is not an anarchist, though. Day did identify as an anarchist after her conversion, specifically a Catholic anarchist.

Today, some historians classify her belief system as a form of libertarian socialism. This umbrella term applies to political views that combine socialist and anarchist beliefs. Libertarian socialists often regard state communism and capitalism as equally evil. Unlike communism, anarchism is not necessarily in opposition to Catholic beliefs.

Dorothy Day’s Legacy

Dorothy Day died in 1980, but the Catholic Worker Movement is still going strong today. The newspaper that Day founded, The Catholic Worker, is still in rotation. The hospitality houses that she started are located around the world. Day wrote eight books not including anthologies.

In 2015, Pope Francis addressed the United States Congress. He named four exceptional Americans: Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr., Thomas Merton, and Dorothy Day.

“In these times when social concerns are so important, I cannot fail to mention the Servant of God Dorothy Day, who founded the Catholic Worker Movement. Her social activism, her passion for justice and for the cause of the oppressed, were inspired by the Gospel, her faith, and the example of the saints.”

Pope Francis in his address to Congress

Bibliography

Day, D., & Eichenberg, F. (1952), The long loneliness: the autobiography of Dorothy Day. ‎ HarperOne.

Day, D. (1997), Loaves and fishes: the inspiring story of the Catholic Worker movement. Reprint Edition. Orbis Books.

Written around 1610, The Tempest is one of William Shakespeare’s last plays. It centers on an old magician and former king who has been exiled to a remote island. When his brother (and usurper) suffers a shipwreck and gets washed up on the island’s shore, it seems that the moment for revenge has finally arrived. However, once their daughter and son fall in love with each other, things get a lot more complicated.

William Shakespeare’s The Tempest Begins With a Shipwreck 

The Tempest starts off with a huge storm that wrecks the ship of Alonso, the king of Naples. Soon after, we find out that the storm was in fact set off by Prospero, a magician who happens to be a former duke. Twelve years earlier, Prospero was usurped by his brother Antonio and left to die in a boat at sea. However, Prospero and his daughter Miranda survived and have been living on the island ever since. The two are by far not the only inhabitants of the island, however. When he arrived at the island, Prospero enslaved its native inhabitant Caliban, and turned the spirit Ariel into his servant. Now that Alonso and his crew, which happens to include Prospero’s treacherous brother Antonio, have been washed up on the island, it seems that the time for Prospero’s revenge has finally arrived.

Love at First Sight, Betrayal, and the Renunciation of Magic

As the plot unfolds, the shipwrecked king and his men wander around the island. Among other things, the king’s son Ferdinand meets Miranda, the daughter of Prospero, and they fall in love at first sight. In order to prevent their romance from developing, Prospero puts Ferdinand into isolation and forces him to carry wood. However, it does not take long for Prospero to change his mind and bless the union.

In the meantime, treason is in the air: Antonio and a few other sailors have come up with a plan to kill their king in his sleep. However, Prospero and Ariel prevent this from happening and make the culprits run away in fear. Meanwhile, some other sailors stumble across Caliban, who is understandably frustrated over his enslavement. Together, they plan to stage a rebellion against Prospero.

Given the ending of many of Shakespeare’s other plays, one may expect The Tempest to end in bloodshed and murder. But surprisingly, none of that happens. Instead, Caliban’s plot gets discovered and prevented before any true harm is caused to anybody. Having taught his brother a lesson with the help of his magic, Prospero even decides to forgive his brother, free Ariel, and renounce his magical abilities.

Was The Tempest Shakespeare’s Departure From the Stage?

The Tempest is considered Shakespeare’s most mature work, and many have interpreted the ending as the playwright’s farewell to the stage. At the end of the play, Prospero abdicates his magic and ends his last monologue with the line, “Let your indulgence set me free.”  Given that Shakespeare retired from the stage soon after, it’s not entirely surprising that many consider Prospero’s last monologue to be Shakespeare’s symbolic retirement speech.

A Play About Power, Responsibility, and Forgiveness 

The Tempest is one of Shakespeare’s most profound works. This is hardly surprising given that Shakespeare wrote it towards the end of a long career in theater. The Tempest touches on various themes including love, betrayal, and forgiveness. It also delves into the relationship between power and responsibility and opens up various moral questions about colonization and the abuse of power.

Power and Responsibility in The Tempest 

For one thing, The Tempest brings up questions about power and the responsibility that comes along with it. Prospero was usurped by his brother from his position as Duke of Milan because he did not take care of the responsibilities that came along with his title. Instead of taking care of worldly matters, Prospero devoted his time to studying magic, which made it easy for someone else to take his place. One could even go so far as to say that Prospero lost his place on the social ladder because he did not fulfill the duties that came along with his power.

On top of that, The Tempest also brings up other questions about the ethics of power. Once Prospero arrives on the island, he uses his magical abilities to enslave Caliban and free the spirit of Ariel. However, he does not give freedom to Ariel immediately. Twelve years later, Ariel is still Prospero’s servant, although the spirit is clearly longing for freedom.

Colonialism and Abuse of Power in The Tempest 

Shakespeare lived during a time when England was starting to create its empire. Just over 200 years later, Great Britain would be ruling over 23% of the world’s population, making it the largest Empire in human history. Of course, there is no way Shakespeare could have predicted the massive growth of Britain’s territory or the many atrocities that would be committed as part of this expansion. However, The Tempest does open up questions about colonialism and the ethics of turning local populations (exemplified by Caliban and Ariel) into servants and slaves.

If we subject The Tempest to a postcolonial critique, we may argue that Prospero has abused his magical powers to gain rulership over the island and its inhabitants. It does not take a lot of imagination to draw a parallel between Prospero’s occupation of the island (and its inhabitants) and the way the British used their advanced weapons to gain control over foreign territories. Prospero used his magic to enslave, rather than free. So if we look at The Tempest through a postcolonial lens, the resentment Caliban feels towards Prospero seems understandable. Caliban is described (and treated) as a sub-human semi-monster, which mirrors the way the European colonizers have dehumanized the native people of their colonies. After all, Prospero is nothing more than a foreign oppressor.

Postcolonial critics have also argued that Ariel and Caliban represent two possible responses to colonial rule. While Caliban stages an unsuccessful rebellion against his master, Ariel continues to be subservient to Prospero in the hopes that the latter will eventually free him.

Witchcraft and Magic in The Tempest 

Throughout the play, Prospero uses magic to control the action and holds a kind of puppet master position. Among other things, Prospero employs his magical abilities to create the storm that washes the sailors onto the beach. He also uses magic (and the help of the spirit Ariel) to drive the action forward and prevent the plot against the king and himself. While Prospero uses his magical capabilities to his advantage, his powers also put him in a position of responsibility.

After all, his magical powers can be used for both good and evil. But it seems that age has given him a greater level of wisdom. Instead of seeking vengeance, he merely teaches his treacherous brother a lesson. While Prospero lets his anger and pettiness get the better of him during some moments of the play, his final choice to take the higher road teaches us that we must expand our hearts at the same rate at which we expand our powers.

The Case of Sycorax: A Postcolonial View of Witchcraft & Magic

According to the play, the island used to be ruled by a witch called Sycorax who used her powers to enslave various spirits of the island. Sycorax is said to have been a powerful woman from Algiers who was abandoned on the island while pregnant with Caliban. The fact that Prospero’s magic (and enslavement of Ariel) is considered morally acceptable, while Sycorax’s powers are deemed dangerous, opens up questions around feminism and colonialism.

Shakespeare lived during a time when the burning of women as witches was still commonplace. Likewise, there is a long history of the demonization of religious, spiritual, and magical practices performed by native people in colonized territories. For these reasons, some postcolonial critics have argued that Sycorax represents the silenced African woman and the demonization of witchcraft practiced by colonized people. The Tempest therefore opens up several questions about the ways in which we look at magic. We may ask ourselves why the practice of a white male magician is acceptable, while the magic made by an African witch is considered evil, for example.

Forgiveness in The Tempest 

The Tempest is a story full of conflict and power struggles. And yet, the maturity of this play is evidenced by the fact that it ends with Prospero forfeiting his wish to seek revenge, deciding to forgive his brother instead. The play teaches us that a mature person no longer needs or wishes to punish those who have wronged them. After all, it is only when we forgive those who have wronged us that we become truly free.

William Shakespeare’s The Tempest in the 21st Century and Beyond 

The Tempest, like many of Shakespeare’s plays, has been adapted for the screen multiple times. In the 2010 film adaptation, Helen Mirren portrays Prospero. There is also an Opera version with music composed by Thomas Adè, while Rudolf Nureyev created a ballet version of Shakespeare’s magical work. It remains to be seen how future generations of directors and actors will interpret this multifaceted work. However, as we enter the age of AI, the questions The Tempest raises about power and responsibility seem to be more relevant than ever.

Divisionism was an artistic technique that relied on constructing images from small primary-colored brushstrokes that would supposedly mix in the viewers’ brains into a complete picture. Colorful and bold, these paintings offered a radically different way of perceiving art. Popular from the 1880s until the first decade of the 20th century, Divisionism was hated by most art critics but still loved by progressive radical artists. Read on to learn more about Divisionism and its creative legacy in modern art.

The Scientific Roots of Divisionism

Divisionism was a Neo-Impressionist painting technique that was heavily based on studies of optics and light. It was a direct heir to the Impressionist movement, which blended these studies with the subjective impression of a fleeting moment. In 1839, a French chemist called Michel-Eugene Chevreul published a study On The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast. In this writing, he researched how adjacent colors influenced each other and affected their perception by the human eye. Apart from chemistry experiments, Chevreul made a living by restoring old tapestries. This occupation gave him enough material. Another influential text was the English book Modern Chromatics, written by Ogden Rood. Rood established the principles of color contrast and harmony, as well as the visual and emotional effects of color combinations. Nineteenth-century researchers of optics believed that the human brain combined complex colors from small primary-colored dots.

French artists were the first to turn these theories into artistic practice. Painters like Camille Pissarro, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, and others started to create mosaic-like compositions from unblended primary colors. When placed close to each other, these fragments turned into complex and detailed images. Similar to Impressionists, Divisionists were preoccupied with the effects of light, both natural and artificial, on space and color. They believed that by positioning primary colors close to each other, they could achieve greater luminosity and more nuanced tones.

One of the most radical proponents of Divisionism in painting was a famous anarchist and art dealer Felix Feneon. Feneon was a controversial figure in his time, loved by avant-garde artists but despised by the conservative crowd. Feneon was a patron and supporter of young Henri Matisse and Georges Seurat at a time when they were absolutely unknown and unappreciated. He believed traditional museums were cemeteries that halted the development of modern art, and funded exhibitions and publications to bring progressive artworks, including those by Divisionists, to a larger public. For him, radical politics and radical art were the same, contributing to one another and progressing hand in hand. Feneon’s support of arts made him the main character of one of the most famous Divisionist paintings of all—a portrait by Paul Signac in 1890.

Italian Divisionism

The movement’s further development can be traced back to Italy at the moment of its difficult and long reunification. Until the 1860s, Italy was a cluster of city-states and kingdoms in constant conflict with neighbors, endless territorial claims, and a deep sense of cultural superiority despite the poor state of its economy and infrastructure. With the country’s long and bloody unification came the need to forge a shared cultural identity for diverse regions and cultures.

Building cultural identity on the art of the shared Italian past was a dangerous decision since every region had its own nuances. Moreover, the newly united country needed a boost into the future, and the obsession with the remains of the past could slow down the progress, turning the country into a decaying open-air museum. Starting in the 1880s, Italian artists started to look for a modern language of painting and eagerly adopted divisionism as a suitable option.

However, Divisionist painting offered a technique rather than a complete artistic movement, packed with style and subject matter. Thus, although Italian artists of the last decades of the 19th century relied on the avant-garde look of it, their subject matter remained deeply rooted in the Renaissance past. Early Italian Divisionists often painted religious scenes, sometimes in the form of triptychs similar to altarpieces. These choices presented a radical contrast to the French Divisionists who, like Impressionists before them, focused mostly on urban scenes and modern social settings.

Some artists, like the famous Italian Giovanni Segantini, applied the Divisionist technique to Symbolist subject matter, creating dramatic landscapes, gentle images of motherhood, and gruesome punishments for evil femmes fatales.

Despite seeming rather simple, Divisionism was a shock for the Western crowd of art professionals and lovers. It presented a radically different way of interacting with images and an alternative way of coding reality into portable painting form. The critical response was mostly negative, especially coming from the conservative Italian press. Apart from a clear fear of innovation, critics expressed concerns with the fact that Italian artists were learning from their French colleagues. The fear of cultural and aesthetic homogenization stood in the way of appreciating local developments and the unique qualities that differentiated French and Italian modern artists. Critics called divisionist works painted measles and compared them to embroidery, but not in a favorable way. In France, great artists like Claude Monet and Pierre Auguste Renoir refused to exhibit their work in a space shared with the Divisionists.

From Divisionism to Futurism

A decisive turn happened when the technique was adopted by one of the most radical and provocative groups of young artists of the 20th century. The Futurists declared the utter rejection of everything associated with old times and old culture and called for radical modernization of Italy. Modernity became the new religion, with heavy machinery and roaring mechanisms replacing traditional aesthetic categories of art and music. Divisionism was the first logical step undertaken by those looking to shake off the legacy of the past centuries.

Politically, Divisionism represented a more intellectually accessible form of art that did not require amassing any amount of extra knowledge of symbols, iconographies, and traditions. Mostly, it dealt with modernity and used a technical, non-allegorical language. For Futurists who saw their goal to get rid of traditional forms, symbols, and perceptions of art, the bright and dynamic look of Divisionist art was the first step to finding the solution. One of the leading Futurists, Giacomo Balla started his career by painting bright Divisionist canvases of street lights and city balconies. The play of light, reflected by the short colorful brushstrokes showed the complexity of artificial light that finally became widespread.

Pointillism

Frequently confused with Divisionism, Pointillism was another artistic technique that branched out of it. While divisionist art dealt with paint applied in small strokes, pointillist paintings consisted of tiny adjacent dots. Pointillism did not rely as much on color theory as Divisionism did. It was developed and practiced by the same artists though—Paul Signac and Georges Seurat.

Pointillism was short-lived and less versatile than Divisionism. Pointillist canvases emphasized the technique, while Divisionism offered a wider stylistic and political diversity.

The Legacy of Divisionism

What was first perceived as painted measles soon became popular enough to appear as a norm, at least in the works of progressive avant-garde artists. Vincent van Gogh’s unique style featured elements of Divisionist painting, with small separate strokes combined into a complex whole. In his technique, Van Gogh relied heavily on impasto—a textured layering of thick strokes of paint that gave extra expressive potential and volume to his compositions.

Apart from France and Italy, Divisionism became popular in the Netherlands. The famous abstract artist Piet Mondrian adopted a similar technique that would later transform into his signature geometric abstraction, composed of small colorful blocks. For a while, great artists like Pablo Picasso and Gino Severini worked in Divisionist technique too.

Generally, Divisionism was rather short-lived, with its theoretical claims soon disproven by practice. However, art historians believe that the movement served as the crucial step in developing a radically new approach to modern painting. Divisionism offered a new way of constructing the artificial painted reality by building the image from small blocks of paint, rather than from lines imitating nature. It also made modern artists less afraid of pure bold color, which would soon manifest itself in abstract art.

The 3d and 4th century Christian Bishop called Nicholas of Myra is the man who gave rise to the Saint Nicholas legend, that we now associate with Santa Claus. Little, if any, material remains directly about the real man from the 200s and 300s CE, nor do any of his personal writings survive, so stories about Nicholas are better categorized as either plausible or fantastical, rather than true or false. In spite of this, many miracles and exploits have been attributed to Nicholas of Myrna through the centuries, and have given rise to popular traditions we now associate with Santa Claus, including stockings, gold coins, and gifts for children. 

Where Was St Nicholas of Myra From?

Nicholas of Myra was born in the city of Patara of Asia Minor, what is now Demre, Turkey.  Sources suggest he was a Bishop in the town of Myra in the late 300s, elected to the position by fellow priests upon the death of the previous Bishop when he was the first to enter to church to pray the morning after. Nicholas possibly attended the Council of Nicaea, and was imprisoned by Roman Emperor Diocletian, before being released under the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great. The death of Nicholas is generally held to be on December 3, 343 CE, when he was around 73 years old.

Did Saint Nicholas Hit a Heretic?

Maybe. The legend is that Nicholas slapped Arius at the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE. It is thought their conflict arose due to Arius’ position that Jesus Christ was a created being, rather than God incarnate. While Nicholas is listed among the attendees of the Council of Nicaea, nothing else is really known about what truly transpired between them at the Council, if anything.

In fact, the story arose several hundred years after the life of Nicholas, as did many of the other stories that were attributed to him.

What Miracles Are Attributed to Nicholas?

Nicholas has sometimes been nicknamed “the wondermaker” for the many fantastic miracles that have been attributed to him through the centuries. One story, often depicted in gruesome works of art, recounts how St Nicholas saved three young boys from a local butcher. The story tells how the bloodthirsty butcher lured the children here to be killed and pickled as hams during a widespread famine. Nicholas raised the children from the dead, and released them from their terrible fate.

In another story, when a wheat-laden ship was in port at Myra, Saint Nicholas requested some of the wheat be left for the city. When the sailors hesitated, he promised they would receive payment and they unloaded the wheat.  When they arrived later to deliver the grain to the emperor, they found that the stores of wheat on the ship were still full, and Myra had received enough grain for years to both eat and plant.

How Did Saint Nicholas Become Known as Santa Claus?

According to the Life of Saint Nicholas by Michael the Archimandrite (written in the 800s, possibly using source material written much earlier), Saint Nicholas, who had come from a family of wealth, had heard about three daughters whose father could not afford the dowry to marry them away.  Nicholas then secretly delivered bags of gold coins at night to them, which allowed them to be married and avoid a life of prostitution. It is perhaps for this reason that Christians and many Westerners now leave stockings filled with toys and chocolate coins for children to open on Christmas day.

His association with children through the legend of the butcher may have given rise to the idea of Nicholas as a patron for children and the poor. Eventually the story of Nicholas’ generosity gave rise to the popular and much-loved character of Santa Claus, a name whose origins can be traced back to the Dutch derivation of a name for Nicholas, Sinterklaas.

The celebration of Christmas has a rich history that dates back to ancient times, with origins rooted in both Christian and pagan traditions. Over centuries, the holiday evolved, gaining iconic customs like gift-giving, caroling, and the decorating of evergreen trees. In the United States, Christmas became widely embraced during the 19th century, blending influences from European settlers with uniquely American traditions like tree-lighting ceremonies and festive parades. Whether you’re drawn by these stunning parades, vintage markets, or historic landmarks aglow in holiday splendor, these ten must-visit historic Christmas towns in the US promise a truly enchanting holiday experience.

1. Leavenworth, Washington

Nestled in Washington’s Cascade Mountains, Leavenworth was founded in 1906 as a timber and railroad town. Facing economic decline in the 1960s, community leaders transformed it into a Bavarian-style village to boost tourism. This initiative led to the creation of the Village of Lights: Christmastown festival, where over half a million lights illuminate the town, complemented by carolers, holiday markets, and visits from Santa Claus.

You can explore the Greater Leavenworth Museum to delve into the town’s history, enjoy authentic German cuisine, and visit the Nutcracker Museum, which houses an extensive collection of nutcrackers.

2. McAdenville, North Carolina

Founded in 1881 by textile magnate Rufus Yancey McAden, McAdenville is affectionately known as “Christmas Town U.S.A.” This moniker stems from a tradition that began in 1956 when the McAdenville Men’s Club, with support from Pharr Yarns founder W.J. Pharr, adorned trees around the community center with red, white, and green lights. This modest display has since blossomed into a dazzling spectacle featuring over 500,000 lights, attracting hundreds of thousands of visitors annually.

A cherished event is the Yule Log Parade, initiated in 1949 after Mr. and Mrs. W.J. Pharr experienced a similar celebration abroad. In this festivity, townspeople escort a yule log through the historic downtown to the Memorial Yule Log Fireplace at Legacy Park, where it’s ceremoniously lit, symbolizing community unity.

When visiting, make sure to stroll along Main Street to admire historic mill homes adorned with festive decorations, explore the McAdenville Historic District to delve into the town’s rich textile heritage, and enjoy the harmonious sounds of the McAden Mill Bell Tower playing Christmas carols.

3. St. Augustine, Florida

Founded in 1565 by Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, St. Augustine, Florida, holds the title of the oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the continental United States. This rich heritage is celebrated annually during the Nights of Lights festival, a tradition inspired by the Spanish custom of placing a white candle in windows during the Christmas season to symbolize warmth and hospitality.

From late November through January, over three million white lights adorn the historic district, illuminating landmarks such as the Castillo de San Marcos, a must-see historic landmark in Florida, and the oldest masonry fort in the US, and the Bridge of Lions. You’ll have the chance to enjoy festive events like the Holiday Regatta of Lights, featuring illuminated boats parading along Matanzas Bay, and the St. Augustine Christmas Parade, one of the largest in Northeast Florida.

Exploring the cobblestone streets reveals historic sites like the Ximenez-Fatio House Museum, offering insights into 19th-century life, and the St. Augustine Lighthouse & Maritime Museum, which hosts a luminary night during the holidays.

4. Santa Claus, Indiana

This charming historic town was established in 1854 and was originally named Santa Fe. Upon discovering another Indiana town with the same name, residents chose “Santa Claus” during a Christmas Eve meeting, inspired by the holiday spirit.

In 1914, Postmaster James Martin began responding to children’s letters addressed to Santa Claus, a tradition that continues today with the help of volunteers known as “Santa’s Elves.”

The town’s festive attractions include Santa’s Candy Castle, opened in 1935 as America’s first themed attraction, offering a nostalgic candy experience. The Santa Claus Museum & Village showcases the town’s unique history and houses the original post office.
You can also see the 22-foot-tall Santa Claus Statue, which was dedicated in 1935 and symbolizes the town’s holiday heritage.

Each December, the Santa Claus Christmas Celebration features events like the Santa Claus Land of Lights, a 1.2-mile drive-through light show telling the story of Rudolph. The town’s post office offers a special holiday postmark, attracting mail from around the world.

5. Stockbridge, Massachusetts

Founded in 1739, this quintessential New England town is renowned for its rich history and festive holiday traditions. Each December, the town hosts the Stockbridge Main Street at Christmas event, inspired by Norman Rockwell’s 1967 painting “Stockbridge Main Street at Christmas (Home for Christmas).” This celebration recreates the iconic scene with vintage automobiles and holiday decorations.

Start by exploring the Norman Rockwell Museum, which houses an extensive collection of the artist’s works, including the original “Stockbridge Main Street at Christmas” painting. The historic Red Lion Inn, established in 1773, provides a cozy retreat adorned with traditional holiday decor. Nearby, Naumkeag, a Gilded Age mansion, features the Winterlights display, illuminating its gardens with thousands of twinkling lights.

6. Woodstock, Vermont

Woodstock, Vermont, chartered in 1761, hosts each December the Wassail Weekend, a festive event inspired by Norse and British traditions of wassailing, which involves singing and drinking to the health of trees in the hopes that they might better thrive. The celebration features a horse-drawn parade with participants dressed in period attire, holiday concerts, and the decoration of homes and businesses with traditional greens.

Check out the Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller National Historical Park, which preserves the site where Frederick Billings established a managed forest and a progressive dairy farm. The Woodstock History Center offers insights into the town’s rich past, showcasing artifacts and exhibits that detail its development since the 18th century.

The town’s central square, known as The Green, is bordered by restored late Georgian, Federal Style, and Greek Revival houses, so it’s a great setting for holiday festivities.

Nearby, the Billings Farm & Museum offers a Victorian Christmas experience, complete with traditional decorations, candle dipping, and horse-drawn sleigh rides, which allows visitors to step back in time and experience the holiday as it was celebrated in the 19th century.

7. Middleburg, Virginia

Established in 1787 by Revolutionary War officer Lieutenant Colonel Leven Powell, Middleburg is renowned for its rich equestrian heritage and historic charm. Each December, the town hosts Christmas in Middleburg, a festive celebration that has become a cherished tradition.

The event features the Middleburg Hunt & Hounds Review, where riders in traditional attire parade through the streets accompanied by hounds, reflecting the town’s foxhunting legacy. This is followed by the Middleburg Christmas Parade, showcasing floats, marching bands, and an appearance by Santa Claus. Visitors can explore the National Sporting Library & Museum, which offers insights into the region’s sporting life, and enjoy the town’s Federal-style architecture adorned with holiday decorations.

8. Hermann, Missouri

This beautiful historic town was founded in 1837 by German immigrants. Each December, the town transforms into a holiday wonderland, celebrating its roots with events like the Christkindl Markt at Hermannhof Inn. This market emulates traditional German Christmas markets, offering handcrafted gifts, authentic German cuisine, and live entertainment.

At the Weihnachtsfest held at the Deutschheim State Historic Site, you can experience a 19th-century German Christmas. The 1840 Pommer House is adorned with authentic German ornaments, and guests can sample traditional springerle cookies.

The Holiday House Tour showcases beautifully decorated historic homes, reflecting Hermann’s architectural heritage. Additionally, the Hermann Farm offers insights into 19th-century holiday customs, featuring homes decorated in period style and traditional German treats like lebkuchen. You can also enjoy the Say Cheese Wine Trail, where local wineries pair wines with savory cheese dishes.

9. Mount Dora, Florida

Established in 1880, this charming town comes alive during the annual Light Up Mount Dora celebration that illuminates the downtown area with thousands of twinkling lights, creating a magical atmosphere that lasts through January.

The Mount Dora Christmas Walk offers a family-friendly street party featuring music and extended shopping hours. This allows you to enjoy the holiday spirit throughout the historic downtown. Additionally, the Mount Dora Lighted Boat Parade showcases festively decorated vessels cruising along the shoreline of Lake Dora.

10. Skaneateles, New York

Skaneateles, established in the early 19th century, is a historic town in New York located on the northern shore of Skaneateles Lake, one of the Finger Lakes. Each holiday season, the village hosts the Dickens Christmas festival, a tradition that began in 1993. This event transforms Skaneateles into a Victorian-era setting, featuring over 50 characters from Charles Dickens’ works, including Scrooge, Father Christmas, and Dickens himself, who interact with visitors along the streets, shops, and restaurants.

The festival includes activities such as horse-drawn carriage rides, caroling, and live street performances. You can also explore the village’s historic sites, such as the Skaneateles Historical Society Museum, which provides insights into the area’s rich heritage.

In the Bible, Simon was surnamed “Zealot” to distinguish him from the other Simon, who is nicknamed Peter. He is called a Zealot, which may indicate his affiliation with a radical political party that wanted to rid the Holy Land of the Roman occupation. He is one of the most obscure among the Twelve Disciples, and were it not for his designation as a Zealot we would know almost nothing about him from the Bible. Tradition and legend provide enough information to construct a basic profile of this enigmatic disciple, though the reliability of the available information is doubtful.

Who Was Simon and What is a Zealot?

Simon was a very common name in ancient Judea. In the gospels, at least nine different people have that name, but only one was known as Simon the Zealot. The most prominent other Simon went by the name Peter, though Jesus would at times revert to his first name (Luke 22:31).

According to the Italian chronicler and archbishop of Genoa, Jacobus de Voragine, Simon the Zealot and Jude Thaddaeus were brothers. The Latin version of the Bible also refers to Thaddaeus as a Zealot, which may explain why these two ministered together in later life.

The Zealots were a political group that opposed the Roman occupation of the Holy Land during the 1st century CE. This group was founded shortly after the Romans declared the lands native to the Jews as part of the Herodian Tetrarchy.

Though they were a political structure dedicated to freeing the Jewish nation from Roman occupation, they were ideologically very similar to the Pharisees. Some considered them the fourth sect of Judaism after the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. The Zealots anticipated a Messiah figure who would lead them to victory against the Romans. It is possible that many people interpreted the rhetoric of Jesus about his kingdom from the local political perspective, rather than as Jesus intended.

Judah of Gaulanitis, also known as Judas of Galilee or Judas of Gamala, founded the Zealots in 6 CE. A similar, though seemingly more militant group, the Sicarii, would even attack Jewish settlements they considered apostate for not opposing Roman rule. These two groups played leading roles during the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) during which Jerusalem and the Temple, which they gained control over, were destroyed (70 CE).

According to the Talmud, the Zealots were militant, wild ruffians known for being merciless, uncompromising, and extremely aggressive. The blame for the eventual destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple was placed on them. They may have had the support of religious leaders among the Jews early on but they lost it when they instigated a civil war which made victory against the Romans impossible.

First Encounter and Calling as a Disciple

Apart from his name appearing in the lists of disciples in the synoptic gospels and Acts, we know nothing about the interactions between Jesus and Simon the Zealot. The Gospel of John does not mention him at all.

According to the apocryphal Arabic Gospel of the Infancy of the Saviour, the calling of Simon the Zealot happened many years before the ministry of Jesus had officially started. This work relates the story of how, as children, Simon was bitten on his hand by a snake and Jesus healed him. Jesus then told the boy that he would become one of his disciples. The story ends with the words: “…this is Simon the Canaanite, of whom mention is made in the Gospel.”

Character and Personality

If we accept the designation “Zealot” as a reference to the 1st-century political party popular among many Jews, then Simon was a nationalist activist who was willing to associate himself with an ideology that opposed the authorities of the day. He would have been a radical in many people’s eyes, willing to accept the risk of standing up against the oppression of his people by taking part in activities aimed at expelling the Romans from Jewish lands.

The challenge with such a designation is that “Zealot” could also simply have indicated where Simon was from. The term Zealot is the Greek rendition of the Hebrew word Kanai which Jews used to use to refer to someone who was zealous for God. Cana was also a place in Galilee.

It could also be that Simon was merely zealous for Mosaic Law or Jesus. If this interpretation is correct, Simon was a dedicated believer and was passionate about his faith, though he may also have been quiet and reserved in word and deed.

This begs the question of whether an activist who was part of a militant political movement would have blended in well among other disciples. He never commented or acted in a way that justified a mention in the gospel narratives. One would expect such a person to be outspoken and bold.

Furthermore, Zealots were strict in their observance of the Mosaic Law. Jesus often engaged with the Pharisees, who shared most of the religious sentiments of the Zealots. It is conceivable that Jesus and Simon the Zealot would have had significant differences in views when it came to the interpretation and application of the Law, yet the gospel narratives never detail such a conflict.

The relative absence of Simon from the gospel narratives seems to indicate that he was a zealous believer rather than a militant agent for change in the face of oppression.

Significant Encounters

The Church Father Jerome assumed Simon was from Cana, which caused many to believe Simon must have been present at the wedding celebration in Canaan where Jesus turned water into wine. That assumption is based on speculation. The Bible does not record any significant interaction between Simon and Jesus.

Legacy and Tradition

Jerome, the 4th and early 5th-century Church Father, believed Simon was from Cana, presumably due to the Zealot/Kanai connotation. He said: “He was surnamed Peter to distinguish him from another Simon who is called the Cananean, from the village of Cana of Galilee, where the Lord turned water into wine.” True to this tradition, the King James Version calls this disciple “Simon the Canaanite” in Matthew 10:4 and Mark 3:18 but calls him Simon Zelotes in both instances where Luke lists him (Luke 6:15; Acts 113).

It is important to note that Matthew and Mark use the term kananaios, while Luke used the term Zēlōtēs. Scholars believe kananaios comes from the Aramaic qan’an which means “zealous one,” and therefore has the same meaning. The New American Standard Bible, The New International Version, and New Living Translation translate kananaios as Zealot, though many others follow the King James rendering of Cananaean or Canaanite.

This mistake was repeated throughout the ages, as is evident from The Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine, which states:

“Simon is as much to say as obedient or being in heaviness. And he had a double name; he was said Simon Zelotes, and Simon Cananean of Cana a street that is in Galilee, there whereas our Lord converted the water into wine.”

No early record of the ministry of Simon the Zealot exists. In The Golden Legend, de Voragine claims that the brothers, Simon and Judas (Jude Thaddaeus) ministered together in Persia after Simon ministered alone in Egypt.

Death

There are at least six traditions concerning how and where Simon the Zealot died. Depending on the tradition they followed, artists would sometimes depict Simon according to his method of martyrdom. He often holds a saw.

According to Justus Lipsius, the Flemish Catholic philologist, philosopher, and humanist, Simon the Zealot was sawed in half in Saunir, Persia. This version seems to have a late origin since Lipsius died in the early 17th century.

De Voragine believed Simon and his brother Thaddaeus were martyred and crucified in Persia. Ethiopian Christians believe Simon came to the same fate, but that it occurred in Samaria. A much earlier version of events by Moses of Chorene, a 5th-century Armenian historian, relates how Simon was a martyr in “Caucasian Iberia,” approximately where modern-day Georgia is. Hippolytus of Rome, a notable Church Father from the late 2nd to early 3rd century, believed that Simon died by crucifixion in Britain during the Roman conquest of the island.

Only the Eastern tradition sees Simon die peacefully of old age in Edessa.

The suggestion that Simon, if he was a Zealot, could have died in the war against the Romans is highly unlikely. It would imply that he never truly converted from one who sought a Jewish kingdom to one that proclaimed the soon-to-be kingdom of God.

Fresco painting is a technique that dates back thousands of years. Although exact techniques varied from century to century, the popular understanding of it is the process of applying pigment to a freshly plastered wall that would absorb color. From ancient painters of Pompeii to Diego Rivera, artists of all eras valued frescoes for their brightness and durability. Read on to learn more about fresco painting and its history.

What Is Fresco Painting? (Definition & History)

Fresco is an ancient technique of painting that is usually used to decorate the inner and outer walls of buildings by painting over wet plaster surfaces. The earliest found paintings that fell under the category of fresco were 4th-century BCE artworks found in Egypt. However, some art experts name 2000 BCE Bronze Age images as the first frescoes. They were painted on limestone with wet natural pigments. Fresco painting was popular in Ancient Greece and Rome and then adopted by Byzantine and Kyivan Rus painters. However, the most significant era in the history of fresco painting began in Renaissance Italy. Due to the development of the art industry and comfortable climate, many Italian frescoes from that era were remarkably preserved.

Despite the ancient origins of the technique, the term fresco occurred in writing for the first time in the 1437 treatise of painting written by Cennino Cennini, a prominent Florentine painter and a student of Giotto. Cennini’s account is one of the most detailed in the history of art, representing a detailed technical manual on late Medieval and early Renaissance art, including the proportions of pigments and preparation for creating paintings, textile designs, and frescoes. Cennini’s writing was so thorough and accurate that art forgers, including the notorious Eric Hebborn, used it as a manual for creating plausible forgeries that would not raise the alert of art experts. Today, the term fresco rather carelessly applies to almost all kinds of wall painting. Contemporary artists rarely use it, preferring more modern and durable materials. However, fresco painting still survives as an art form used in church decoration.

Fresco Painting Technique

Cennini called fresco the most impressive kind of work and described the process in detail, starting with preparing the wall for painting. The base for a fresco should be covered with a water and lime solution. The surface should be spread thickly and have a rough texture that would allow the colors to cling. Then, the artist should measure the treated surface and mark it before transferring the sketch to a still-wet plaster base. The artist should carefully evaluate their time since plaster dries relatively past. As noted by Cennini, sometimes in winter, cold temperatures can slow down the process, giving the painter up to two days to finish, yet it would be careless to rely on the weather too much. If the base gets too dry, the artist has to either wet it with water or reapply.

Paint used for frescoes is usually a simple mixture of pigment and water. Wet plaster absorbs paint naturally. Thus, the surface needs neither a binder nor a top coating to fix the painted surface. Cennini also noted that some artists painted in dry plaster using tempera paint. Although such a method gave a painter significantly more time to render their composition, the resulting images were less bright and less durable than those painted on a wet base.

Apart from painting, some artists carved out fragments of plaster base to give more depth to certain elements of work like architectural details or background objects. The long list of celebrated artists who used the fresco technique includes Tintoretto and Raphael, Carracci and Botticelli, and many others.

Pompeii Frescoes

Along with mosaics, surviving Pompeii frescoes gave archeologists and visitors a glimpse into the well-developed culture of the city and the lives of its inhabitants. Due to their durability, many Pompeii frescoes survived the Mount Vesuvius eruption and were preserved under layers of ash and stone. As excavation continues, archeologists find more and more of such frescoes, uncovering new aspects of the locals’ lives.

Many affluent Pompeiians had personal shrines to gods inside their houses, with images of deities and their attributes painted on walls. Many frescoes were painted in public areas to decorate or to indicate the areas’ purposes, such as with pornographic images found on the walls of brothels. Some images were used as methods of visually enlarging small spaces. Frescoes found inside small rooms often include realistic images of windows, gardens, and galleries. Political propaganda through images was not foreign to Pompeii locals. For years, one of the well-known frescoes was mistaken for an advertisement in the baker’s shop. In reality, the scene of bread distribution to the crowd was a political gesture, showing a local politician giving away bread to poor citizens.

Da Vinci’s Frescoes

Renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vinci did not leave behind many painted works. Of those that remained, one of the most famous works is actually a fresco. Painted inside the Santa Maria delle Grazie convent in Milan in 1498, The Last Supper reflected (and unfortunately, suffered from) the too-careful approach of its master. Da Vinci was known as a slow and careful painter; thus, the traditional fresco technique did not give him enough time to work properly. For that reason, he painted The Last Supper with tempera paint, which negatively affected the vibrancy of colors and the work’s lifespan. Due to humidity and bad ventilation in the rooms, the plaster on The Last Supper had already started to flake in the 1520s. By the 1650s, the image was allegedly unrecognizable and was so damaged that the convent friars cut a doorway through it, believing it was lost beyond repair.

A notorious failure of da Vinci was his competition against another legendary artist of his time, Michelangelo Buonarroti. In 1504, both Leonardo and Michelangelo were commissioned to paint battle scenes next to one another. Their mutual dislike and cult status did not help to make the process more delightful for everyone involved. While working, Leonardo made a crucial mistake. He decided to test a new paint composition, which caused the painted image to peel off the wall almost immediately. Thankfully, Michelangelo did not even start to paint his work, as he was called on an urgent commission from Florence to Rome.

Mexican Muralists

In the 1920s, the Mexican government started to employ artists to forge the visual expression of Mexican national identity. Artists like Diego Rivera, Jose Clemente Orozco, and David Siqueiros brought together the Indigenous culture of Mexico, European influences that came with the Spanish colonization and contact with the West, and contemporary concerns of Mexicans. Then, the overwhelming majority of Mexicans could not read; thus, the artworks had to be clear and understandable enough for those without an impressive intellectual background. The most functional form of art for such purposes was public art.

Some artists who represented the Mexican Muralism movement revived the technique of fresco in their works. Easy to handle and durable, fresco was also a cultural bridge between Europe and Mexico, the one that, unlike colonization, was consciously chosen by Mexican artists. While using a European technique, their iconography, style, and subject matter were usually based on Mexican indigenous myths. Thus, artists symbolically added their stories and characters to the larger canon of world art history that excluded non-Western countries for too long.

Restoration and Conservation of Fresco Paintings

Restoration of frescoes is a complicated yet necessary process for those intending to preserve precious wall paintings. The more famous and beloved the fresco, the more caution is expected from restoration teams. The legendary Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo, created in 1512, required restoration already a century later due to the leaking chapel ceiling. Afraid to damage the paintings, local painter Simone Lagi rubbed the ceiling with linen cloths and bread, trying to absorb the dirt. The most extensive restoration of the Sistine Chapel ceiling began in 1980 and took 14 years to complete. For more than a decade, researchers studied the paintings and cleaned them from candle wax and soot. They also reinforced the plaster layer by injecting it with resin and returned Michelangelo’s colors to their supposed original state, using the same natural pigments he had available.

In the case of Pompeii’s frescoes, restoration teams have to consider several additional factors. First, some frescoes buried underneath ash and stone fell victim to underground waters that found their way through the debris. Moisture trapped under the rubble led some of the walls to collapse, ruining the paintings on them. In some cases, warmth and humidity led to the development of bacteria dangerous for both artworks and humans. In 2015, archeologists had to treat some of the frescoes with antibiotics to neutralize the threat.

Another issue is the previous generations of archeologists. By present-day standards, each action of a conservator should be reversible and correspond as closely as possible to the original state of the work. Preserving objects as intact as possible is also crucially important. This, however, was not the case with early archeologists of the 19th century. They removed fragments of walls and paintings to transfer away from the sites to museums and sometimes restored images without a clear understanding of original compositions, based solely on expectations. Today, art conservators carefully study the remaining images and work in collaboration with climate experts who monitor humidity and pollution in the area.

Mistaken in many cases for mere skepticism or pessimism, Cynicism is a school of philosophy that explores the depth of truth and accord with nature. The root of Cynicism was the ancient Greeks, who elaborated with bitter irony on the tenets of conventional society. From Diogenes, wandering in broad daylight among the streets of Athens in search of an honest man, to where we perceive the Cynicism of today—what would it have to say about living meaningfully?

Historical Background of the Philosophy of Cynicism

The philosophical school of Cynicism was founded in the 4th century BC in ancient Greece. The Cynics used to call themselves dog-like people, plainly meaning that they opposed every way of convention and lived quite strangely for their time.

In other words, Diogenes and his followers lived in an upturned storage jar with no worldly goods other than a cloak, a staff to help them hobble in and out of the dungeons of their own minds, and a bread bag. They also walked the talk and adopted an ascetic approach towards living life, in contrast to the abundant materialism of the day.

They preferred life on the streets, openly adopting poverty as a good thing, and laughed at the chains of the rich, powerful, and high-status people they found themselves tied to their fellow citizens. Their dogma rested on a return to nature, to life elaborated in the spirit of what is natural and necessary without any artificial excess.

At the center of Cynicism was getting back to basics: living as nature intended and not being bothered about anything else. Society’s rules were seen by Cynics as bad for you—they wanted out of this system—so they said go for extreme simplicity instead and do everything yourself. They also believed that if you’re good, then you’re happy—and nothing can affect this state of mind. It doesn’t matter what happens to you externally.

Fundamentally, though, their philosophy was one of honest living and acting genuinely from genuinely given nature. In their view, goodness and moral virtue were intrinsic in a meaningfully lived life. The cynics did not believe in luxury and excesses but meant to exercise strength and stamina through self-discipline and ethical living.

Core Tenets of Cynical Philosophy

Adherents of Cynicism believed that most were disillusioned by the false promises offered by consumer culture.

Cynical philosophy insists on the fact that only virtue is the true good itself, and that moral excellence suffices to make a person happy. The Cynics, mostly embodied by figures like Diogenes and Antisthenes, believed material fortunes, power, and status were just detriments, distracting and an obstacle to keeping their end of living authentically.

Central to Cynic practice was parrhesia, the rant of free speech which entitled one to take to the public whatever it was that had to be said without ornament, indirection, or fear of consequences. This concept empowered them to challenge societal norms and question established conventions with unwavering conviction.

For example, the Cynics were very ascetic about their lives, living a modest lifestyle devoid of luxury and castigating anything in excess. All this sums up in a simplistic way of life that aimed at being self-sufficient and freeing the Cynic from external influences that could threaten the virtues they pursued.

Authenticity, with the Cynics, meant living according to nature, not that of animals or plant life, but as it was perceived through a person’s inward reality and truth. So, making one’s deeds conform to that inward reality, they tried to achieve autonomy from material possessions and inner serenity.

In the world now ordered by avarice and ambition, Cynicism points towards the hard anti-ideals: an unorthodox angle on what defines life lived uniquely meaningful in the direction of moral integrity and self-governance. This inheritance inspired contemporary thinking on questions of values, priorities, and choices.

The Impact of Cynicism on Other Philosophical Thoughts

Cynicism, the term used to ensure human treatment of sincerity, autarchy, and natural life, was one of the main sources for later philosophical movements. More particularly, Early Stoicism shared some ideas with Early Cynicism, but it was not the same movement.

Both Cynicism and Stoicism strongly stressed virtue as the highest good and an emphasis on hardening an attitude of inner resilience and moral integrity. Where the Cynics favored extremism and absolute rejection of norms in society, Stoics suggested a more median approach, which is a call to live in accordance with nature but inside society’s engagement with it.

The Cynical focus on simplicity and detachment related to other related philosophies like Epicureanism and Minimalism. In short, through its ever-changing focus on pleasure as the highest good, it shares in the latter a certain level of disdain for things like unnecessary wants and the material.

It wouldn’t be appropriate not to talk about Minimalism, the latest movement in contemporary lifestyle, which glorifies the same ideas that Cynicism has about modest living and finding pleasure and happiness in the essentials.

From these similarities, every philosophy considers simplicity and detachment from very distinct perspectives. Where the Cynics considered renunciation yet another perfect means of liberating oneself from the shackles imposed by society, the Stoics considered detachment a way one may achieve peace inside no matter what goes on around them.

These nuanced differences outline the rich tapestry of thought that has evolved over time from the foundational principles of Cynicism.

Manifestations of Cynicism in the Modern Context

In our modern era, Cynicism’s ideas remain relevant as they continue to influence people’s thinking in ways that can make them question accepted customs and values. One current example of this is how aspects of Cynicism can be seen in a backlash against consumerism and a growing movement for sustainable living.

For instance, some individuals who reject the idea that buying lots of things leads to happiness are influenced by Cynical ideas about finding contentment through simplicity and not being too caught up in desires. They may also think it is better for the environment if we do not make and throw away so much stuff.

On social media platforms, we can see a digital version of Cynicism, where users express disagreement with mainstream viewpoints or challenge those who hold traditional power. Through memes, satire, and online activism—using humourous or skeptical writing or videos to criticize authority figures, institutions, or cultural norms—people communicate this contemporary Cynicism.

In contemporary society, there is a growing desire for authenticity and transparency in relationships and interactions. People want to have genuine connections with others without pretending to be something they are not or engaging in superficial conversation or behavior. This emphasis on living honestly and without hypocrisy is also important to Cynics.

Another way we see Cynicism today is through self-help books. More and more people are reading guides about how to develop mental strength, emotional intelligence, and resilience—the ability to bounce back from tough times. These ideas connect with both Stoicism and Cynicism because both philosophies teach that you can (and should) grow as a person even when life is difficult.

The specifics of Cynicism might have changed over time, but if you look closely enough, traces of this ancient philosophy are everywhere.

Why Is Cynicism Often Criticized?

Critics argue that today’s understanding of Cynicism often draws flak for appearing too pessimistic about life and humanity. It questions people’s motives to such an extent that self-interest is considered the main driver, thereby eroding trust in society—which some say can be corrosive.

Take philanthropy as an example. A modern-day Cynic may see charitable behavior not as being motivated by altruism alone but also by factors like wanting to look good publicly or tax breaks. If so, suspicion could devalue acts of kindness altogether and promote a culture of doubt.

Or politics: here, someone who is cynical now might start from a default position that any politician at all must be corrupt or a liar. This could lead them not to take part in politics (because what’s the point if they’re all as bad as each other?)

In addition, Cynicism is also under fire because it has the potential to be a self-fulfilling prophecy. If you expect people to behave badly, your attitude may actually help provoke the very behavior you anticipate.

If you assume that a coworker will act selfishly and respond defensively or competitively in advance, for example, you may inadvertently encourage this response, which can ultimately corrode trust and cooperation within an organization.

Advocates say that while healthy skepticism can be useful, too much Cynicism might contribute to a culture where nothing ever improves because nobody believes in good intentions anymore—leading to further negativity all around. The challenge lies in finding ways to stay critical while remaining open enough.

So, What Is the Philosophy of Cynicism?

The philosophy of Cynicism revolves around leading a simple life centered on virtue in order to achieve happiness. It originated in ancient Greece, where Cynics such as Diogenes argued that individuals did not require wealth and influence to be genuinely content.

According to the Cynics, joy stems from behaving naturally and not coveting societal values that prove insignificant upon closer examination. They also promoted radical honesty—even if it appeared brutal—as a means of critiquing social norms that most people accept uncritically.

These days, if we describe someone as cynical, we usually mean they’re negative — expecting the worst to happen and thinking people are mainly out for themselves. This isn’t what the ancient Cynics meant: far from being downbeat all the time, they wanted a life without unnecessary worries.

But there is a problem with this modern kind of Cynicism. If everyone is always negative and does not trust anyone else, it becomes very difficult for us to have faith in—or work with—one another! So, in order to be truly happy, say the old Cynics, we need to learn how to simplify our lives and concentrate on being good people.

For the past 500 years, Mary Magdalene has been hiding in plain sight on the walls of the Sistine Chapel, according to new research by Italian art restorer and researcher Sara Penco. Her recently-announced book, Mary Magdalene in Michelangelo’s Judgement, makes the case for the Biblical woman’s forgotten presence in the Italian Renaissance fresco, which is chock-full of fascinating figures.

“The Fresco Was Screaming That Something Was Missing”

It was 25 years after he completed the Sistine Chapel ceiling that Michelangelo began working on The Last Judgment, a fresco that covers the entire altar wall of the Vatican City landmark. The scene depicts the Second Coming of Jesus Christ and the final judgment of humanity as written in the New Testament. Over the course of four years, Michelangelo painted over 300 figures in The Last Judgment. Christ appears at the center of the composition, surrounded by the Virgin Mary, John the Baptist, Saint Peter, and other prominent Catholic saints. Above them, the saved float heavenward while the damned sink beneath them.

Back in 2012, Sara Penco began researching how scholars had identified these figures over the years, as Michelangelo did not leave behind a definitive key. Penco was puzzled by the absence of Mary Magdalene in her research, whom she considered too central a figure to have been omitted from such a complex composition. “The fresco was screaming that something was missing,” Penco said at a recent press event in Rome, where she announced the publication of her book. “Michelangelo was an expert painter, he was very cultured, he was someone who knew the dynamics of the Church very well, he knew the gospels, and he could not have forgotten her.”

Michelangelo’s Mary Magdalene

One overlooked figure in The Last Judgment caught Penco’s attention—a yellow-clad, wide-eyed woman kissing a wooden cross on the far-right-hand side of the fresco. “I am firmly convinced that this is Mary Magdalene,” Penco said. “The intimacy with the cross, the yellow dress and the blonde hair, but also the whole context in which Michelangelo places this figure to underscore her importance.”

Penco noted that Michelangelo painted Mary Magdalene in striking shades of yellow, a color associated with sin and madness. Interestingly, Michelangelo’s Mary does not direct her gaze towards Christ. Rather, she makes eye contact with the viewer, perhaps to remind them of their own status as a redeemed sinner in the Christian worldview. In the introduction of Penco’s book, curator Asia Graziano explained, “In the chaotic and anguished vision [of The Last Judgment] Michelangelo stages in the Sistine Chapel, the detail of Mary Magdalene alongside Christ the Redeemer is the key to understanding a message that Michelangelo addresses to himself and passes on as a legacy to humanity.”

The Conception and Controversy of The Last Judgment

Pope Clement VII originally commissioned Michelangelo to paint The Last Judgment on the wall behind the Sistine Chapel’s altar. The fresco was completed under Pope Paul III. Previous depictions of the Last Judgment traditionally followed a familiar compositional order with a harmonious, heavenly upper half and a chaotic, hellish lower half.

Michelangelo’s version departed from this convention—and even somewhat from his earlier Sistine Chapel ceiling paintings—with its tumultuous arrangement and posing of figures throughout. The abundance of nudity, over-the-top musculature, and fleshy, cool color palette also flouted convention. Not long after the fresco’s debut, many of Michelangelo’s nude figures were covered up by painted-on drapery during the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation.

The term Found Object Art refers to artworks that were created from already existing functional objects, either purchased or literally found by an artist. The use of found objects became widespread in the 20th century and reflected the transforming relationship of artists and their audience with the material world around them. With the rise of mass consumption of cheap disposable goods, these goods became accessible artistic materials with clear and inclusive contexts of use. Read on to learn more about found objects in art.

Before Modern Era: Found Objects as Curiosities

The term Found Object or Found Object Art usually refers to art being made from already existing objects that have a practical purpose. Reappropriated by artists as artistic materials, they rarely transform beyond recognition, usually retaining their appearance and at least some of their physical properties. Found object art often relies on discarded materials unfit for their practical use. However, many artists deliberately purchased their objects to build a relationship between a work of art and its contemporary consumer practices.

Found Object art is widely considered to be an invention of modernity. Before the 19th century radically transformed our perception and expectations of art, an artwork was regarded as something meticulously crafted not from thin air, but from raw material such as pigment, stone, or metal. However, found objects were nonetheless present in culture, but mostly in the form of collections of curiosities. Educated Westerners collected natural objects, artifacts from Asian and African cultures, as well as animals and birds, usually in the form of taxidermy. Cabinets of curiosities were the precursors of present-day curated exhibitions and museums. Starting as collections of odd fragments, they became the staples of Renaissance science. Approaching the modern era, this concept of curated collection developed enough to be applied to arts and crafts, leading to the emergence of museums and exhibitions in the present-day sense.

Les Incoherents and the Quiet Artistic Revolution

Usually, art historical texts refer to the Dada movement and Marcel Duchamp as the first artists to rely on found objects. However, the first recorded yet often ignored instance of this concept’s use refers to a little-known group of artists who shocked and provoked Parisian crowds in the 1880s. They called themselves Les Incoherents (meaning The Incoherents) and deliberately displayed works that ridiculed the art world and challenged its boundaries. They exhibited drawings by the mentally ill or untrained artists, preceding the concept of art brut, and presented monochrome canvases with titles like First Communion of Anaemic Young Girls in the Snow (a completely white painting) or Apoplectic Cardinals Harvesting Tomatoes on the Shore of the Red Sea (respectively, a bright red one).

One of the Incoherents’ experiments featured a found object, repurposed as a work of art. Writer and journalist Alphonse Allais exhibited a piece of green carriage curtain with a complex title Some Pimps, Known as Green Backs, on their Bellies in the Grass, Drinking Absinthe. Art historians believe that the short-lived activity of Les Incoherents was the starting point of conceptual art that would develop only a century later.

Around the time of Les Incoherents’ activity, found objects started to occasionally appear in the works of famous artists, although in specific contexts. The most famous example is the sculpture Little Dancer of Fourteen Years by Edgar Degas, which featured a real tutu skirt. However, this object was never entirely artistic, as it reflected Degas’ studies of physiognomy—a pseudoscience that studied the supposed correlation between a person’s facial features and criminal inclinations. He sculpted a portrait of a teenage ballerina that he believed reflected the principles of physiognomic theory. Thus, the Little Dancer was, at least partially, a scientific object, and the incorporation of non-artistic elements such as a muslin skirt provided a certain degree of realistic observation.

Found Objects and Dada

In the 20th century, manipulation with found objects became the only artistic way to match the quick-paced modern life with its technology and speed. Instead of spending months, if not years, behind a monumental canvas, modern artists could just reach for a nearby object and interpret it as an aesthetic and meaningful agent. These objects, readily available in shops, flooded everyday modern reality and constructed a separate realm of everyday interaction and consumption. Previously, the natural world was the reflection and the extension of the human one, and vice versa. In modernity, however, humans have become capable of almost complete independence from it, settling comfortably in their constructed worlds.

Initially, sound objects appeared in artworks as parts of collages and assemblages. These techniques were popular among Dada artists, who were looking for ways to reflect post-war reality in their art. Dadaist Raoul Haussman repurposed a factory-made mannequin’s head to point out the narrow-mindedness of the critical judgment of art and the inability of critics to keep up with current times.

Other modern artists who started to experiment with found objects were Cubists. Starting from collages made from newspaper clippings, they moved to sculpting objects that incorporated strings, mirrors, and other objects. Picasso’s sculpture Glass of Absinthe featured a silver sugar strainer incorporated into a painted bronze structure. For Cubists, the incorporation of real objects married their semi-abstract imagery with the material world, building a bridge between three-dimensional reality and two-dimensional painting. Later, following Cubists’ ideas, the artist of the Russian avant-garde proclaimed the principle of truth to the materials, believing that the use of familiar objects and non-artistic materials would make artworks more accessible to the wider uneducated public. Artists like Ivan Puni incorporated builder’s instruments like saws and hammers into their compositions as acts of solidarity with the working class.

Marcel Duchamp: The Father of Conceptual Art

Marcel Duchamp was one of the few artists of his time who did not brush off the nonsensical experiments of The Incoherents. Although Duchamp was born during the movement’s final days, his artistic practice relied on careful research and thorough work with references. In the mid-1910s, Duchamp came up with the idea of readymades—objects that had little to no involvement from the artist’s side. Thus, he proclaimed that the act of choosing an object as an expressive artistic statement was much more important than the artistic skill and originality involved in crafting it from scratch.

In 1913, Duchamp attached a bicycle wheel to a stool and presented this construction under the title Bicycle Wheel. According to Duchamp, he did not have a specific meaning in mind. He just enjoyed the structure’s form and appearance. According to some art historians, the Bicycle Wheel was one of the first examples of kinetic art that typically involves moving mechanisms. However, Duchamp’s most famous found object was the scandalous Fountain, an overturned urinal allegedly sent to him as a sculpture by another Dada pioneer, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven.

Some Dadaist experiments with found objects involved manipulating the object’s initial purpose. The sculpture Gift by Duchamp’s close friend and collaborator Man Ray represented an iron covered with nails. From a rather dangerous yet useful household item, the iron transformed into a menacing hybrid that was good only for violence.

Conceptual Art and Found Objects

Propelled by Duchamp and the Dadaists, manipulation with found objects moved to other artistic movements. The Surrealists injected familiar objects with extra meanings, making them symbols of repressed desires and dark dreams. Pop artists used goods and their packages to reconstruct the modern reality around them.

By the 1960s, the concept of appropriating pre-made materials and objects developed into the idea of conceptual art. Like Marcel Duchamp, conceptual artists valued artistic ideas over their material representation. Artists were not obliged to craft their creations anymore; instead, they were expected to rethink their relationship with reality through existing material means. The capitalist abundance of mass-produced and readily available objects transformed our relationship with them.

As the general population started to value their belongings less, either preferring or being directly forced to buy cheap disposable goods, the language of art and its perception transformed similarly. Instead of relying on materials and skills, artists and collectors started to value something immaterial, impossible to reproduce and sell—a creative idea and unique perspective.

In tune with the ideas of early Soviet avant-garde sculptors, found everyday objects often built more inclusive contexts around their use in art. Due to their widespread use, these objects act as universal symbols, more accessible and relatable to the larger public than traditional symbolic systems used in pre-modern art.

The 1953 Korean War armistice ended the fighting but not the war. For the next 15 years, skirmishing continued in a low-intensity conflict along the DMZ, or Demilitarized Zone. 1968 became a year when North Korean skirmishes became full-blown attacks. The South Korean and American governments responded, increasing the intensity and tensions.

Why Was North Korea Aggressive in 1968?

For nearly two years, the Koreas fought “quietly” along the DMZ. North Korea constantly looked for moments to strike, and 1968 looked very promising. The hated Americans, distracted by the Vietnam War, took less notice of Korea. They view the South Korean government as weak. Also, Communist North Korea’s main goal was to reunify Korea under Kim Il Sung. These attempts aimed to consolidate Kim’s power further.

Who Were the Leaders During the Korean Conflict?

The three leaders were Kim II Sung, President Park Chung Hee, and President Lyndon Johnson. The instigator, Kim II Sung, ruled North Korea since the end of World War II. His firm objective was to reunite the Koreas by force if necessary. The guerilla tactics initiated on his orders would destabilize the South, fostering revolution so his armies could swoop in. South Korean President Park Chung Hee seized power in 1961 and slowly modernized Korea. The American President in 1968 was Lyndon Johnson, who became President after Kennedy’s 1962 assassination. 

When Did the North Koreans Attack the Blue House?

North Korea’s first 1968 attack happened on January 21. A commando group snuck into South Korea on January 17. Their mission: attack the Blue House (President’s residence) and kill Park Chung Hee. Woodcutters soon discovered them just over the border, thwarting their plans. The 31 commandos traveled south, disguised as soldiers from the Republic of Korea. Somehow, they evaded the Americans and South Koreans searching and came within yards of the Blue House. 

A stubborn, suspicious police captain stopped them. In a pitched gun battle, the Koreans clashed, firing in all directions. But with surprise gone, the North Koreans scattered only to be hunted down over several days. One survived; one surrendered, and the other returned to the North.

How Was the USS Pueblo Bad for Everyone?

On January 23, 1968, only two days after the Blue House Raid, the North Koreans captured the USS Pueblo. The Pueblo, a lightly armed fishing trawler, had been equipped with sophisticated intelligence gear with a mission to record North Korean communications. But the boat sailed into perilous waters.

The North Koreans claimed the Pueblo strayed into their territory; thus, they attacked. The attack killed one sailor and imprisoned 82. Besides a chance to humiliate America, Kim Il Sung’s government soon learned of the spy ship’s mission. Once the U.S. knew of Pueblo’s fate, President Johnson considered blockades, aerial bombardments, or more. He rushed more forces to the area as a precaution. Jonhson backed down, fending off calls for nuclear attacks and letting diplomacy work.

After tense negotiations, the U.S. half-heartedly apologized. The North Koreans released the Pueblo’s crew, knowing their victory from the standoff. The USS Pueblo remains in North Korea and is considered an active U.S. Navy ship. Many Americans thought this raised the risk of a world war.

Where Else Did the North Koreans Attack in Korea?

The North Koreans kept up small attacks throughout 1968. The biggest push happened on November 30, 1968, in Samchok, South Korea. One hundred twenty commandos from Unit 24, a highly trained and fanatical group, landed at eight beaches around Samchok. They hoped to create secret bases in the nearby mountains and politicize the South Korean villagers to revolt. But their intentions went sideways as the villagers grew angry at the forced indoctrination. Clashes happened with the DPRK, or Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, commands who killed several. Numerous villagers escaped, alerting local police and Korean army units. 

The ROK, or South Korean Army, quickly closed off the area. The U.S. Army helped with troops and helicopters. To hunt just the invaders, President Park mobilized 70,000 men. The dragnet closed in, so by December 26, the Army eliminated 117 North Koreans. The South Koreans lost 63 killed, plus villagers. Even the Americans suffered four dead. These landings became North Korea’s big efforts due to the cost and finding no enthusiastic Communist-leaning response.

How Did the 1968 Korean Conflict End?

The Korean Conflict of 1968 was never war but ranged from skirmishes to battles. By 1969, Kim Il Sung realized the attacks produced no favorable results. The North Korean economy wasn’t great, and his army was woefully obsolete. While maintaining a belligerent political front, Kim turned inwards to focus on potentially bigger problems.

Oregon, a gem of the Pacific Northwest, is best known for its breathtaking coastline, dense forests, and iconic landmarks such as Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. Visitors flock to experience the Columbia River Gorge, home to 90 waterfalls, and Mount Hood, a year-round skiing destination. The Beaver State’s tourism industry has rebounded robustly, with travel spending reaching $14 billion in 2023, a 0.6% increase over the previous year. Oregon’s history is equally compelling, from its critical role in the Oregon Trail migration to the establishment of thriving trade hubs in the 19th century. Its historic towns, including the gold rush hubs and communal settlements, provide a living record of these transformative eras. If you’re a history lover and want to explore these stories firsthand, these ten historic towns in Oregon should be on your bucket list.

1. Jacksonville

Jacksonville, Oregon, founded in 1852 following a gold discovery at Rich Gulch, quickly transformed from a mining camp into a bustling town. By 1853, it became the county seat of Jackson County and a central hub for commerce and government in Southern Oregon. However, the town’s growth slowed after the railroad bypassed it in 1884, leading to a decline in prominence. This downturn inadvertently preserved its 19th-century architecture, which earned Jacksonville a National Historic Landmark designation in 1966.

Today, you can see over 100 preserved structures, including the Beekman Bank, established in 1863, and the 1880s Jackson County Courthouse. The town also hosts the Britt Music & Arts Festival, held in the former estate of photographer Peter Britt.

2. Astoria

This historic town in Oregon was established in 1811 by John Jacob Astor’s Pacific Fur Company. It holds the distinction of being the oldest American settlement west of the Rocky Mountains, which is home to iconic historic small towns. Strategically located at the confluence of the Columbia River and the Pacific Ocean, Astoria played a pivotal role in the fur trade and later emerged as a significant port city.

When you’re there, make sure to learn about Astoria’s rich maritime heritage at the Columbia River Maritime Museum, which offers exhibits on shipwrecks, fishing, and navigation. The Flavel House Museum, an elegant Queen Anne-style mansion built in 1885, provides a glimpse into Victorian-era life. Additionally, the Astoria Column, standing 600 feet above sea level, offers panoramic views of the city and surrounding landscapes. The town is famous for its well-preserved historic sites and vibrant downtown, featuring restored 1920s architecture.

3. Pendleton

Established in 1868 and incorporated in 1880, Pendleton is a town rich in Western heritage. Named after politician George H. Pendleton, it became a vital hub for agriculture and trade in the late 19th century. The arrival of the railroad in 1889 further spurred its growth, which solidified its status as a key economic center in northeastern Oregon.

Pendleton is renowned for the annual Pendleton Round-Up, a rodeo event inaugurated in 1910 that celebrates the region’s cowboy culture and traditions. See the Pendleton Woolen Mills, established in 1909, where you will witness the craftsmanship of iconic woolen products. The Tamástslikt Cultural Institute offers insights into the history and culture of the Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla tribes. Additionally, the Pendleton Underground Tours provide a glimpse into the city’s past that showcase historic tunnels and spaces beneath the streets.

4. Baker City

Baker City, founded in 1865 and incorporated in 1874, emerged as a pivotal center during the gold rush era. Named after U.S. Senator Edward Dickinson Baker, it swiftly became a commercial hub, especially after the arrival of the Oregon Short Line Railroad in 1884. By 1900, Baker City was the largest settlement between Salt Lake City and Portland, which earned it the moniker “Queen City of the Inland Empire.”

When visiting, make sure to explore the Baker Historic District, which encompasses over 130 properties reflecting late 19th and early 20th-century architecture. A standout landmark is the Geiser Grand Hotel, established in 1889, renowned for its Victorian elegance. The Baker Heritage Museum, housed in the historic 1920 Natatorium, offers exhibits on local industries, Native American artifacts, and the region’s Chinese heritage. Additionally, the National Historic Oregon Trail Interpretive Center provides insights into the pioneer journey, with preserved wagon ruts nearby.

5. Silverton

Situated along Silver Creek, Silverton became a prominent trading and banking center in Western Oregon by the late 19th century. It was established in 1854, and it’s not only rich in history but also in natural beauty.

When you’re in Silverton, you’ll have the chance to explore the Gordon House, designed by renowned architect Frank Lloyd Wright, which is the only Wright-designed building in Oregon open to the public. The Gallon House Bridge, built in 1916, is one of Oregon’s oldest covered bridges and reflects the region’s early 20th-century engineering. This is another must-see. Additionally, the Silverton Country Historical Society Museum offers exhibits on local history, including artifacts from the city’s early days.

Silverton is also known as the “Gateway to Silver Falls” due to its proximity to Silver Falls State Park, which features stunning waterfalls and hiking trails. The city’s historic downtown is adorned with murals depicting its past, which provides a picturesque setting for visitors.

6. Brownsville

This historic Oregon town that was established in 1846 is nestled in the Willamette Valley. Initially known as “Calapooya” after the indigenous Kalapuya people, it was later renamed in honor of Hugh L. Brown, who, along with James Blakely, opened the first store in the area.

The town gained prominence in the mid-19th century as a vital stop along the east side Territorial Road, especially with the operation of Kirk’s Ferry across the Calapooia River. In 1851, Brownsville briefly served as the county seat of Linn County.

When you visit Brownsville, you’ll be able to see the Linn County Historical Museum, housed in the original railroad depot, and six Southern Pacific railroad cars. The museum showcases artifacts from pioneer life, including an authentic covered wagon used on the Oregon Trail.

Another notable site is the Moyer House, an 1881 Italianate-style home featuring intricate stenciling and murals reflecting the town’s affluent past.

Brownsville’s picturesque Main Street, lined with preserved 19th-century buildings, served as the filming location for the 1986 movie Stand By Me, adding a touch of cinematic history to its charm.

7. Cottage Grove

Cottage Grove, established in the mid-19th century, is renowned for its rich history and collection of covered bridges. Known as the “Covered Bridge Capital of Oregon,” the city boasts six historic covered bridges, including the Chambers Railroad Bridge, the only remaining covered railroad bridge west of the Mississippi River.

The Downtown Cottage Grove Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992, features early 20th-century architecture, with many buildings designed by architect John Hunzicker. The district’s cohesive aesthetic reflects the city’s development during that era.

Also, it’s worth visiting the Cottage Grove Museum, housed in a former church built in 1897, which showcases local artifacts and history.

8. Troutdale

This beautiful historic town was founded in the 1850s near the confluence of the Sandy and Columbia Rivers. It has a rich history shaped by its strategic location. Initially known as Sandy, the town was renamed Troutdale by pioneer John Harlow, who raised trout in ponds on his farm.

Incorporated in 1907, Troutdale became a vital hub with the arrival of the railroad in 1882, facilitating commerce and growth. The construction of the Historic Columbia River Highway in 1916 further enhanced its significance, which made it a gateway to the Columbia River Gorge.

You can explore the city’s heritage through the Troutdale Historical Society’s museums, including the Barn Exhibit Hall, the Fred E. Harlow House, and the Depot Rail Museum, which showcases artifacts and stories from Troutdale’s past.

The city’s historic downtown features art galleries, antique stores, and charming shops, reflecting its early 20th-century architecture.

9. Canyon City

Canyon City was established in June 1862 following a gold discovery at Whiskey Gulch on Canyon Creek. It then quickly became a bustling mining town. At its peak, the population swelled to approximately 10,000, surpassing Portland at the time. In 1864, it was designated the county seat of Grant County, which solidified its regional importance.

You can explore today Canyon City’s rich heritage at the Grant County Historical Museum, which showcases artifacts from the gold rush era, including mining equipment and exhibits on pioneer life. The museum also features unique displays, such as taxidermied calves with rare deformities that reflect the area’s agricultural history.

Strolling through Canyon City reveals well-preserved 19th-century structures that are worth witnessing for history lovers.

10. Aurora

Founded in 1856 by Dr. Wilhelm Keil, Aurora began as a Christian communal society known as the Aurora Colony. Named after Keil’s daughter, the colony attracted over 600 members at its peak, emphasizing shared resources and collective living.

The colony was notable for its skilled artisans, producing high-quality textiles, furniture, and musical instruments. Music played a central role in community life, with the Aurora Colony Band gaining regional acclaim.

After Dr. Keil’s death in 1877, the communal society gradually dissolved, which led to the incorporation of Aurora as a city in 1893.

Today, Aurora’s historic district preserves numerous original colony buildings that allow visitors to learn more about 19th-century communal life. The Old Aurora Colony Museum features artifacts and exhibits detailing the colony’s history and craftsmanship. Aurora is also recognized as one of America’s premier antiquing destinations, with many shops housed in historic structures.

Encaustic painting was a technique of painting with colored molten wax that originated in Ancient Greece. Over the following centuries, it traveled to Rome and Egypt and was later adopted by early Christian icon painters. In the modern and contemporary era, some artists revived the ancient technique, willing to experiment with mediums and materials. Read on to learn more about encaustic painting, its application, and conservation nuances.

Definition and Antique Origins of Encaustic Painting

Encaustic painting is an ancient technique of mixing hot molten beeswax with pigment and using it for painting. Encaustic paint creates a semi-transparent finish that dries almost instantly, forcing the artist to work quickly. The wax-based paint can be applied with brushes, cloths, and knives or simply be poured over the base material. Encaustic paint leaves thick textured brush strokes that sometimes can be sculpted or carved after the wax hardens. To fix the image, artists usually heat the entire surface of a finished work to bind layers of wax together and give a uniform glossy finish to it.

One of the prerequisites of encaustic painting is stiff back support for the painting. Wax is a soft and fragile material that would inevitably crack and break on a flexible background like canvas or paper. The artists of Greek and Roman antiquity mostly used wooden panes for their encaustic paintings.

Encaustic painting originated in Ancient Greece. The earliest written mention can be found in Pliny the Elder’s encyclopedia The Natural History. Over the following centuries, it was adopted by Christian icon painters but was gradually pushed out by mediums like tempera and oil. Apart from wax and pigment, ancient painters mixed in tar and oil. The proportions varied according to the work’s purpose: due to the physical properties of beeswax, encaustic paint for outdoor and indoor painting had to have different consistencies.

Fayum Portraits

The so-called Fayum portraits are among the most famous encaustic paintings. Many were found at the Roman-Egyptian burial site in Fayum Oasis, which is how they got their name. These portraits, used instead of traditional masks, were placed directly over the body or on the sarcophagus. Fayum was an area populated with diverse ethnic groups, including Egyptians, Greeks, and Syrians. Local culture absorbed various influences and customs, resulting in an outstanding style of encaustic painting, incredibly detailed and realistic.

Today, archeologists have found about 900 Fayum portraits. Fayum Oasis was a burial site for elites, so the portraits show the luxuries and fashions of the time. Hairstyles, for example, are especially useful to archeologists. Although most portraits are from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE, experts can identify specific decades based on hairstyle length, styles, and other details. Many portraits were decorated with thin gold leaf that either covered the entire background of an image or highlighted details like jewelry and garment ornaments.

Apart from paintings, archeologists found papyrus with Greek and Egyptian texts, ceramic vessels, and objects for personal use. Starting from the 3rd century CE, encaustic paint was almost completely replaced by tempera. Tempera portraits, although as detailed as the encaustic ones, did not have the same glossy finish and nuanced contrast created with molten wax.

Christ Pantocrator

Another iconic work of art painted with encaustic technique was Christ Pantocrator, an icon from Saint Catherine’s Monastery near Mount Sinai. Christ Pantocrator is one of the oldest surviving Christian icons, dating back to the 6th century CE. Historians believe it was one of the images that cemented the iconography of Jesus Christ’s appearance and facial features. These features would later spread over different Christian denominations and become an instantly recognizable image of the Savior.

One of the most important features of Christ Pantocrator was the asymmetry of Christ’s facial features. This was a deliberate artistic choice: the right part of his face, bright and soft, represents his heavenly half, and the left, with a dramatically arched eyebrow and dark eye, relates to his human part and the suffering he had to endure. Some art historians noted the similarity of Christ Pantocrator to pre-Christian depictions of Sun gods. Many also note that at the time of the work’s creation, canons of Christian art had not yet existed. Thus, over the years, this image itself became the source canon.

At the time of the work’s creation, Byzantine authorities were fighting against the use of images in churches and destroyed many important artworks, yet the Sinai Monastery managed to preserve their treasures. Saint Catherine’s Monastery was one of the rare places that maintained the tradition of encaustic painting even when it fell out of favor and was replaced by tempera. Christ Pantocrator was originally painted with encaustic paint and preserved surprisingly well for its age. However, in the 8th century CE, an unknown painter restored the icon with tempera paint, partially covering the original encaustic image. Only in 1962 did art conservators remove the tempera layer, returning the icon to its original state.

Modern & Contemporary Encaustic Painting

Although usually, while talking about encaustic painting, we name Greek, Roman, and Byzantine examples of art, painting with molten wax was familiar and popular in non-European cultures as well. In the 17th century, Indigenous Philippians created art using a now-lost technique kut-kut, that involved maintaining with wax and scraping off parts of the image. After tempera and oil paint took over the art market, encaustic painting became obscure and almost went extinct. However, the 20th-century experiments and reinventions brought this art technique back.

Mexican modernists like Diego Rivera revived the use of encaustic paint. He painted his first state-commissioned mural, Creation, with encaustic paint, combining pre-colonial Mexican, early Christian, and Egyptian artistic traditions. As a reference to Byzantine art, he covered parts of the mural with gold leaf. Creation was painted inside the National Preparatory School in Mexico City and presented a complex composition of allegorical figures, including Hope, Science, Charity, and Faith.

Paul Klee, the famous modernist and Bauhaus professor, famously experimented with many art mediums and techniques. Encaustic painting was one of them. Klee mixed wax with sand and poured it over glass or painted canvas, only to scrape away fragments and reveal a pattern underneath. Klee’s whole oeuvre was one extensive, joyful experiment that included play with materials and forms. In Bauhaus, he encouraged his students to experiment as well.

In the 1950s, encaustic painting became popular among Boston artists associated with the Expressionist movement, like Esther Geller and Karl Zerbe. Abstract Expressionist painter Fritz Faiss, a former student of Paul Klee, went even further than simply painting. Faiss developed his own recipes for encaustic wax and patented them. Today, encaustic painting is rare in contemporary art but still appears, often combined with other materials. Artists may use encaustic elements in mixed-media installations or complex projects.

Restoring Encaustic Paintings: Sometimes the Old Ways Are Better

Wax is extremely soft and sensitive to hot and cold temperatures, thus art conservators have to be cautious to avoid causing more danger to artwork during restoration. In the early 20th century, art experts used paraffin to fix the damaged fragments of Fayum portraits. However, paraffin is more brittle than natural beeswax, and does not solve the problem of further deterioration. Over the years, art experts experimented with waterglass, plexiglass, and celluloid, but none of these methods proved to be functional enough.

The main problem with using synthetic materials to restore encaustic paintings is the uncertainty about how beeswax and pigment will react to them over time. For that reason, by the 1950s, most art conservators resorted to the most obvious choice and focused on restoring Fayum portraits with beeswax solutions. Despite technological development, it still remains the most preferable method to restore encaustic paintings regardless of the date of their creation.

The question of separating art from the artist remains controversial. The case of the great German Expressionist painter Emil Nolde seems even more complicated. In the 2010s, archival evidence uncovered that Nolde was a staunch Nazi who attempted to climb the political ladder of the Third Reich. For years, Nolde pretended to be the victim of the regime, unfairly persecuted like many artists. As the evidence reached the public, museums had to change the tone of Nolde’s exhibitions, while German Chancellor Angela Merkel removed his paintings from her office.

Emil Nolde and His Long Path to Artistic Fame

For decades, Emil Nolde was the established master of German Expressionism, known for his bold colors and expressive lines. Often described as one of the victims of the Nazi regime, he claimed to have suffered from its oppressive cultural politics. Nolde was the youngest son of a poor farmer born in 1867 in Prussia. Eager to escape this life, he started his career as a woodcarver and illustrator, yet struggled to receive recognition until his forties. Part of the reason might have been Nolde’s personality, as he was never an easy person to deal with. Ill-tempered and loud, he could not handle criticism and accepted only his own point of view on both art and politics. He compensated for deep self-doubt with an inflated ego, always seeking someone to blame for his earlier artistic failures. Among his favorite targets were Jewish artists and art collectors.

Emil Nolde started to gain prominence in 1906 when he joined the short-lived yet influential group of Expressionists called Die Brücke (The Bridge). The Primitivist art of Die Brücke drew inspiration from woodblock prints and African art while working with the distinctively modern subject matter of urban scenes. However, the group lasted a little longer than a year, with artists moving each in their own direction. Nolde’s Die Brücke colleagues included Max Pechstein and Ernst Ludwig Kirchner.

Nolde aimed to study at the prestigious Munich Academy of Arts under the guidance of conservative Symbolist Franz von Stuck but was rejected. Instead, he received his training from Adolf Holzel, an abstract pioneer who trained many of the leading Expressionists and future Bauhaus leaders. In 1908, Nolde joined the Berlin Secession, the anti-academist movement of German Modernist artists. However, he was expelled after a couple of years due to a dramatic conflict with Max Liebermann, the Secession’s president. The reason for that was Nolde’s strong opinion on the art scene allegedly dominated and controlled by Jews like Liebermann.

Curiously, during the Secession assembly, Lieberman voted against Nolde’s exclusion to avoid confrontation, but 40 other members decided otherwise, probably tired of the artist’s ill temper and radical views. In the early 1920s, Nolde became a member of the newly emerged National Socialist German Workers’ Party. Around that time, he started to write a memoir that would later become the main source of his life narrative, both real and fabricated.

The Nazis’ War on Expressionism

Although today German Expressionism is most closely associated with oppression and persecution from the Nazi regime, this was not always the case. In the early days of the Third Reich, public figures like the propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels actively endorsed Expressionist painting and print. They referred to it as the expression of the German spirit and interpreted it as the revival of early German Gothic art.

In 1933, Nolde and his wife celebrated the National Socialists’ rise to power. In pro-Nazi newspapers, Nolde’s work was described as Nordic and truly German. The press remembered his old conflict with Liebermann and praised Nolde as the devoted patriot fighting the Jewish dictatorship. Instead of his usual Bible scenes, he moved towards illustrating German myths and legends, hoping to become the official state artist of the Reich and the head of the Berlin art school.

His methods to climb the career ladder were far from ethical. To attract the attention of the authorities, he devised a deportation plan for German Jews and sent it to the officials. To eliminate competition, he denounced his Die Brücke colleague Max Pechstein as a Jew to the propaganda ministry. Pechstein, neither a Jew nor a Nazi, spent several excruciating months proving his German origins to save his life.

However, Nolde’s efforts gave no substantial result. Adolf Hitler saw his paintings and was unimpressed by them. The Fuhrer’s radical conservatism became the only acceptable aesthetic doctrine of the new state. Soon after Nolde’s 70th birthday in 1937, the same propaganda ministry that endorsed him confiscated more than a thousand of his works from German museums. His works then appeared at the notorious propagandist exhibition showing Degenerate Art, which aimed to condemn Modernism as the product of mental decay and destructive Jewish influence. Nolde believed this was a simple mistake, and wrote dozens of letters to the officials and press, proclaiming his Nazi views, anti-Semitic stance, and loyalty towards German art. Still, the Ministry of Culture banned him from exhibiting his works.

Despite the restrictions, Emil Nolde and his wife met World War II enthusiastically. They spent most of it in their estate on the Danish border, with Nolde painting and working on his autobiography. In these years, his anti-Semitic and violent views reached their aggressive peaks. However, as the war’s end drew close, Nolde had to find a way to detach himself from the losing side.

The Post-War Years: Lies and Rehabilitation

After the end of World War II brought up the global condemnation of Nazism, Nolde struggled to reinvent himself to stay relevant and welcome. He started to rewrite his memoir hastily, painting the picture of himself as the victim of the regime. The frequent visits from Nolde’s friends who worked for the Gestapo turned into non-stop government surveillance on paper. He also removed the most repulsive anti-Semitic passages from the text.

In his memoir, he recalled being banned from painting by the Nazis and secretly creating watercolors that he later had to hide under his floorboards. None of this was true. Although Nolde was indeed one of the strawman artists used to condemn degenerative art, his career did not suffer as much as he wanted people to believe. He became more cautious but still continued to paint. The only limitation was related to the sales of his paintings, which had to be approved and authorized in advance. The allegedly secret watercolors that he called the “unpainted paintings” were in reality painted in the early thirties, years before Nolde faced any oppression of his artistic pursuits.

Still, this time Nolde’s efforts paid off. In 1952, he received an order of merit for his outstanding influence on art and was invited to participate in the Venice Biennale. He died in 1956, once again popular, loved, and reinstalled as a great artist and the icon of Expressionist art.

The Emil Nolde Foundation: Reshaping the Narrative

But why did it take so long for the truth to come out? Nolde passed away in 1956, just a decade after the war, giving historians plenty of time to uncover the evidence instead of playing into his self-invented myth. The reason that the false narrative survived for such a long time was the effort of the Emil Nolde Foundation that downplayed or even directly suppressed the information regarding Nolde’s involvement with the Nazis. Such politics lasted until 2013 when the newly appointed Foundation head Christian Ring decided to open up their archives to the public.

In the years following his appointment, Ring organized several exhibitions of Nolde’s oeuvre that focused on the updated narrative of his life and the reflection of his beliefs in his art. According to Ring, the public felt uncomfortable, often expressing aggression and despair. Many of them grew up studying and admiring Noldle’s work and had difficulties fitting the concepts of Nolde the painter and Nolde the Nazi into one full picture.

Among those confused and startled was the German Chancellor Angela Merkel. Days after the opening of a 2019 show exposing the artist, she removed two of his paintings from her office. The paintings were pre-war landscapes loaned from the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation to illustrate the better part of German culture clear from the poisoning influence of Nazism. According to rumors, Merkel was a great admirer of German Expressionism and replaced Nolde’s works with his consistently apolitical colleague Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. Yet, many Germans found this decision controversial, believing that the obvious artistic talent of Emil Nolde could not be diminished by his political stance.

The case of Emil Nolde shows much more than a set of intolerable political beliefs of a single artist. Apart from Nolde, dozens of people became involved in a massive-scale web of lies over the course of six decades, covering the artist’s tracks and agreeing with his thinly veiled excuses.  After all, a terrible person can still produce great works of art, as many legendary figures from art history keep teaching us. However, the only thing that can minimize his deeds and beliefs is the weightened, thoughtful, and honest public reaction.

Yayoi Kusama’s largest-ever Australian exhibition—and one of her most comprehensive of all time—opens on Sunday at the National Gallery of Victoria (NGV) in Melbourne. The retrospective showcases nearly 200 works by the superstar Japanese contemporary artist, including a new infinity room that Kusama calls “a message of love to the world.”

Yayoi Kusama at the NGV

Occupying the entire ground floor of the NGV, Yayoi Kusama traces the 95-year-old artist’s entire career—from her 1930s childhood creations to a brand-new installation. The exhibition draws from Japanese and Australian collections, as well as from Kusama’s personal collection, to showcase a rarely-seen selection of archival ephemera. These include studio photographs, sketches, drawings, and candid correspondences. Yayoi Kusma also showcases a record-breaking total of ten immersive rooms, including the debut installation of Kusama’s latest infinity room.

New Infinity Room Is “A Message of Love to the World”

Alongside her prolific use of pumpkins and polka dots, Yayoi Kusama is best known for her immersive installations, which she began creating in the 1960s. Among these are her iconic infinity rooms, which use mirrors and lights to create the illusion of unending space. Kusama’s newest addition to the roster of infinity rooms is My Heart Is Filled to the Brim with Sparkling Light. Making its global debut at the NGV, it comprises a series of mirrored balls that shine light through small holes. The effect is a seemingly endless stream of color-changing polka dots.

Kusama’s new infinity room is accompanied by a dedicatory message from the artist. “To the people of Melbourne, since birth, I have always transmitted, through resplendent art, a message of love to the world,” Kusama wrote. “It is love that illuminates our lives and makes life beautiful. I aim to deliver in my art a heartfelt prayer. My hope is to experience the beauty of a world where peace and love have fully arrived. It is in celebration of this everlasting hope that I offer love to my eternal humankind.”

More Kusama Retrospective Highlights

Other highlights of Kusama‘s Australia retrospective include Dancing Pumpkin, a 16-foot polka-dotted pumpkin that invites visitors to dance beneath it. Also yellow and polka-dotted, The Hope of the Polka Dots Buried in Infinity Will Eventually Cover the Universe immerses visitors in a sea of larger-than-life tentacles. Both works have never been exhibited in Australia before now.

Yayoi Kusama opens to the public on December 15 at The National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne, Australia. The retrospective runs through April 15, 2025.

Impasto is a popular painting technique usually employed with oil and acrylic paint. Artists use thick brushstrokes to imitate texture or create three-dimensional, almost sculptural effects in their works. Impasto became widely used during the European Renaissance by masters like Rubens and Vermeer. It became extremely popular in the modern era among Expressionist artists with their radical brushwork. Read on to learn more about the impasto technique of painting.

What Is the Impasto Technique?

Impasto is a popular painting technique that involves using unusually thick layers of paint that come out of the canvas. In this case, visible brushwork becomes another expressive means for an artist. The technique became popular in the Renaissance era after oil paint became widely available and popular among Western painters. Paint layers can be applied either with a brush or with a palette knife. The latter, popular among contemporary artists, creates bold and expressive brushstrokes that are almost sculptural. The most suitable medium for the impasto technique is oil paint, as it allows you to build up layers that slowly dry. Acrylic paint or gouache also work well with impasto, yet both tend to significantly lose volume while drying.

Impasto adds volume and depth to the work and can highlight specific areas of a painting. For instance, Rembrandt used impasto to create a three-dimensional effect of wrinkled skin or flickering jewelry. The natural volume of paint replaced the artificially painted play of light and shadow in such elements. Some artists mixed their paint with substances like sand, earth, or sawdust to achieve dramatic texture and unusual thickness. Such experiments became popular among modern artists in the latter half of the 20th century.

Conserving Impasto Paintings

Unfortunately, the texture of impasto paintings makes them rather difficult to store, conserve, and restore. Oil paint notoriously takes a long time to dry, and with every extra millimeter of paint, the estimated drying time expands further. Although some paintings look completely dry after a few days after their completion, in reality, the complete drying process can take years. Contemporary store-bough oil paint usually dries quicker than traditional mixtures of oil and pigment created in artists’ studios. With thick impasto brushstrokes, the bottom layers of paint dry significantly slower than the top layers, and that can lead to large visible cracks on the painting surface. Cracked paint can start to flake, ruining the image.

Moreover, the textured surface of impasto painting collects dust and dirt that is difficult to remove without damaging the paint layer. The mass of layered paint is heavy and can stretch the canvas or even peel off the base. To restore and preserve it, art conservators use special techniques to reinforce the canvas from the back, allowing it to carry more weight. Cracks are usually covered with easily removable paint mixtures that cover the crack and bind the remaining pieces together, preventing further damage. One of the main objectives of contemporary restoration is that every action should be reversible. For that reason, any additions made by conservators can be easily removed without endangering the artwork.

Renaissance & Baroque: Early Examples of Impasto

Art historians first noticed the technique of impasto in the works of Venetian Renaissance masters like Tintoretto and Titian. Before the Renaissance era, the preferable artistic medium was tempera—an egg-based solution applied in thin layers. Tempera could not be mixed or layered properly since it dried almost instantly. Oil paint, on the other hand, gave the artist time and allowed for manipulation. Creating a proper impasto required specific knowledge from the artist. For instance, Rembrandt had his own recipe for thick application of paint, with particular proportions of oil, pigment, and additions. Johannes Vermeer used the impasto technique to render the texture of fabrics, bread crusts, and facial features of his characters.

Impressionism

Impressionist painters eagerly employed impasto in their works to manipulate the textures and depth of the image. Moreover, impasto allows for rich colors and nuanced tones, as artists can blend significant quantities of paint right on the canvas. Impressionist obsession with the fleeting play of light could be rendered through thick highlights and tonal variety, achieved with the impasto technique. Even though contemporary critics mostly considered Impressionist works messy, painting with impasto actually required precision and a clear understanding of one’s subjects. Claude Monet’s bold and decisive brushstrokes allowed him to capture the movement of water and transformations of light in a way that would be impossible for small and thin lines.

Vincent van Gogh’s Impasto

The paintings by Vincent van Gogh are among the most well-known examples of the use of the impasto technique. His textured brushstrokes are clearly noticeable, especially in one of his most famous paintings The Starry Night from 1889. There, spiral-shaped swirls of paint turned out to be remarkably similar to a state of turbulence, when differences in temperature and atmospheric pressure create vortices in the air. However, scientists would discover turbulence patterns only decades after Van Gogh’s death. Today, most historians believe he based his painting on an illustration of a falling comet that was popular in his time.

Vincent van Gogh was famous for his messy use of paint and thick layers. He often applied paint straight from tubes, without pre-mixing it on a palette, and spread it with his fingers instead of a brush. To paint specifically thin lines and small details, he sometimes licked his brushes, ingesting paint. This fact might have contributed to his rapidly deteriorating mental health and delusions that ended with his suicide in 1890.

Impasto & Expressionism

Most artists traditionally were concerned with creating realistic images that corresponded to reality. However, in the 20th century, painters and art critics started to value painting as a separate object with its own physical properties rather than simply a snapshot of reality. This idea gave rise to more radical painting techniques and their applications.

Bold and radical impasto became exceptionally popular with the artists of the Expressionist movement and those inspired by it. Impasto brushwork allowed for a louder and more radical expression, reflecting the inner state of the artist. Apart from applying thick layers of paint, Expressionist painters often scratched it with the reverse sides of their brushes or palette knives or scraped segments of it.

One of the artists who employed this technique was Frank Auerbach, a German-British painter and one of the most influential members of the School of London group. Auerbach’s preferred manner of work was to paint his subject with a thick layer of paint, scrape off the image, and then start again on the following day. According to studio visitors, Auerbach’s works were often as thick as a generous slice of bread since he kept painting and scraping day after day until he was sure he properly understood the object or the scene he was working on.

Among Abstract Expressionists, the impasto technique was particularly popular since the movement focused on exploring expressive qualities of colors, brushstrokes, gestures, and movements rather than particular subject matter or objective reality. The term gesture painting, a free, expressive, and dynamic way of applying paint, was coined by art historians attempting to describe the art of Lee Krasner, Jackson Pollock, Hans Hofmann, and others. Artists were not painting with their hands only; they used their entire bodies and moved freely around the canvas. The famous 1949 photoshoot of Jackson Pollock for Life magazine showed the famous artist almost dancing over his canvas.

Painting or Sculpture? Jay DeFeo’s Extreme Impasto Technique

As we discussed earlier, impasto was a popular technique for Abstract Expressionists and was hardly surprising for those familiar with the movement. However, certain artists managed to push the boundaries of the mastered technique. For instance, Jay DeFeo’s use of impasto questioned the distinction between painting and sculpture. From 1958 to 1966, DeFeo created perhaps her most influential work, titled The Rose. Bringing the impasto technique to its extreme, she layered paint and chiseled it away, creating a monumental composition with an overall weight of more than a ton. To keep the canvas from collapsing, DeFeo had to reinforce it with fabric and wood. The weight and fragile texture of the painting made it difficult to conserve and restore, and for decades, the work was hidden in the SFMoMA art depository. DeFeo turned impasto from a painting technique into an additive sculpting process, further developing the technique’s expressive potential.

The era of modern art is traditionally defined as the period that started in the 19th century, after a series of revolutions and wars in Europe and America, incredible technological advancement, and the development of urban areas and ways of life. Transformations of modern cities triggered changes in the social structures, routines, and pastimes of those who inhabited them. Visual art, as both a product and transformative factor of human culture, could not remain the same. To reflect the new world, artists started to experiment with materials and art techniques.

1. Collage and Assemblage: Art Techniques of the Cubists

Collage and assemblage were the two techniques of creating works of art from fragments and objects. Collages were usually made with paper of similar flat materials, while assemblages incorporated three-dimensional objects, often not crafted but found or purchased by the artist.

Collage and assemblage techniques became popular first in the Synthetic Cubism movement. Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris used cut-out fragments to add visual complexity to the painted images and connect them to the material world. Later, Neo-Dadaists and Pop artists adopted these techniques to explore consumerism and communication through advertisement.

2. Gesture Painting

The term originated from Abstract Expressionism and referred to works created by Jackson Pollock, Lee Krasner, Hans Hofmann, and others. Abstract Expressionist canvases were usually large, with wide sweeping brush strokes. To create such paintings, an artist was supposed to involve their entire body in the work, moving around the canvas and gesturing. Contrary to reserved and careful easel painting, gesture painting was believed to express the inner emotional state of the artist through the movements of the brush.

3. Drip Painting

Another Abstract Expressionist term, the technique of drip painting meant that the artist would literally drip or pour the paint from the can onto the canvas. Before the New York Abstract Expressionist scene, drip painting was used by European artists like Francis Picabia and Max Ernst. Yet, Jackson Pollock became the most famous master of this technique. He suspended paint cans on ropes and flung them over the canvas spread on the floor of the barn where he used to work. According to Pollock experts, he borrowed inspiration for this technique from traditional Navajo sand painting.

4. Divisionism

Divisionism was a technique popular among Post-Impressionist artists that relied on contemporary studies of optics and light. At that time, scientists believed that the human eye composed complex colors from separate fragments of primary-colored fields. Thus, artists attempted to recreate this effect by dividing images into small primary-colored brushstrokes. The artworks by Paul Signac and Georges Seurat were mosaic-like images, where small strokes created the play of light and tone.

5. Impasto

Impasto is a technique of layering paint such as oil or acrylic in thick, textured brush strokes. To enhance the effect, some artists mix sand, sawdust, and other materials into paint to thicken it even more. The impasto technique appeared in art soon after oil paint became the predominant artistic medium. Artists like Rembrandt and Vermeer used impasto to add realistic volume to their portraits by painting textured wrinkles, eyes, and jewelry. In modern art, the impasto technique became a separate expressive instrument used to enhance the dramatism and visual rhythm of abstract compositions.

6. Woodblock Printing

Woodblock printing was not exactly a new technique. Chinese written sources from the 5th century CE already mention it as a developed and popular technique. Japanese artists mastered it around the 12th century, creating complex multi-colored compositions. European masters adopted woodblock prints in the 15th century for book printing, carving both the text and the image into a single block of wood.

However, in the modern era, the technique received a surprising wave of popularity. In 1853, Japan finally opened its borders to Westerners, and European art markets and collections started to amass examples of Japanese fabrics, illustrations, and prints. Their style had little in common with the European pictorial tradition. Many artists, including Claude Monet and Vincent van Gogh, saw them as alternative solutions to the artistic crisis of their time. After the Impressionists, German Expressionist artists started to experiment with woodblock print, attempting to revive the art of the Gothic era. Inspired by heavyweight Gothic art and illuminated manuscripts, they aimed to revive their national heritage.

7. Scraping

Scraping was an unusual technique that became popular in post-war European art. Like with impasto, artists layered thick coats of paint over the canvas. However, instead of leaving it to dry or sculpting it, they scraped it using knives, palettes, or just the back sides of their brushes.

Some artists used this technique to give more texture to their images, while others believed it gave them an extra chance to study the painted subject. Post-war British artist Frank Auerbach was known for painting and scraping off his entire works day after day until he was content enough with his understanding of the scene he painted.

8. Silkscreen Print

Silkscreen printing was an old technique popular in China already in the 10th century. Artists transferred and reproduced preconceived images on various mediums using a stretched piece of silk that allowed the paint to seep through it. Europeans gained access to this technique only in the 18th century, yet it did not gain popularity as silk was too expensive for such projects. The revival of silk screen printing happened in the 1960s when Andy Warhol adopted it for his projects. With the help of his assistants, he created many famous works, including the Marilyn Diptych.

9. Photomontage

Photographers and artists started to experiment with photomontage almost immediately after photography was invented. Initially, photographers overpainted fragments of the images or manipulated developing plates to alter the pictures. In the present-day era, all these manipulations are performed digitally.

Photomontage became particularly popular in the Surrealist movement. Artists eagerly explored new technologies and their possibilities to create illusionistic spaces. Surrealist experiments with photography conducted by women artists were often used for advertising and women’s magazines, launching the genre of commercial and fashion photography.

10. Airbrushing

Airbrush as a tool was invented in the 19th century, but was rarely used as an artist’s instrument until the second half of the 20th century. By using compressed air, the airbrush sprays the paint onto surfaces in a thin and even layer. This way, the artist is able to create subtle and nuanced transitions of color while maintaining a glossy and smooth texture. The airbrushing technique was mostly popular among photorealist artists, who intended to replicate photographic reality as precisely as possible. The famous artist Audrey Flack, ex-Abstract Expressionist turned Photorealist, projected photographic compositions on her easel, and painted over the projected image using regular brushes and airbrush.

11. Readymade

Readymade is an art technique with no technique—it is an act of appropriating an existing object and repurposing it as a work of art. The pioneer of readymade art was Marcel Duchamp, the forerunner of almost every art movement of the 20th century, including conceptual art. Duchamp created artworks from regular objects he purchased in stores, such as a stool and a bicycle wheel. Sometimes, he entirely removed the creative component from the work; this was the case with his famous fountain, which was merely an overturned urinal. Readymades were controversial topics in the contemporary art scene, yet over the years they helped establish the idea that artistic thought was inherently more important than physical involvement.

12. Automatic Drawing: Art Technique From the Spirit World

Originating from the Spiritualist experiments of the late 19th century, automatic writing and drawing were initially used as methods of contacting the spirits of the dead during seances. The medium (usually a woman who claimed she could connect to the realm of spirits) took a pencil and let go of control over her hand movement, scribbling something in a trance state. The resulting words and images were interpreted as messages from the dead. This technique was adopted by early abstract artists who also practiced Spiritualism, like Hilma af Klint. In the 1930s, automatic drawing made a comeback in Surrealist art, this time interpreted as communication with one’s subconscious rather than the supernatural world.

From anti-colonial movements of the twentieth century to the ideological battles of the Cold War, the Soviet Union profoundly shaped the trajectory of global history, from its birth as a sovereign state in 1917 to its collapse in 1991. The Russian Revolution provided a blueprint for the overthrow of imperial powers and inspired hope that even the mightiest empires might fall. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union provided political support and military assistance to communist movements across the globe. For over seventy years the USSR helped shape the aspirations of oppressed peoples and the contours of international politics.

How Did Red October Lead to World Revolution?

The Russian Revolution of 1917 shook the world. Russia, one of the world’s most powerful imperial states, was overthrown in a sudden, dynamic uprising of workers and peasants. Steering this revolutionary wave was Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik Party, a disciplined if somewhat ragtag assemblage of Marxist revolutionaries. 

As outlined by Lenin in his popular treatise, What Is To Be Done (1902), the role of the Bolsheviks was to organize a disciplined party of the working class and agricultural peasantry, that would be ready to harness and guide their spontaneous uprisings. In October 1917 that time arrived. 

Yet the October Revolution stood for something more than the national interest of Russian workers and peasants. As Lenin declared to the Communist Party’s Central Committee in May 1918 “We claim that the interests of socialism, the interests of world socialism, rank higher than national interests, higher than the interests of the state” (Prashad, 2017). The October Revolution was, above all, a rallying call for world revolution. 

Did Soviet Union Impact the Colonial World?

The news that workers and peasants in Russia had brought the mighty Tsarist empire of Imperial Russia to its knees, was met in the colonial world with a mixture of astonishment and excitement. Central to this reaction was Lenin’s powerful declaration of the right of all nations to self-determination. In 1920, he formally extended Soviet solidarity to the “toilers of the East,” urging the colonial world to join hands and “march together in the common cause of liberation.” His message proved electrifying. 

Following in the wake of 1917, revolutionary movements gained momentum across the colonial world. As early as 1913 Lenin wrote with anticipation that “everywhere in Asia a mighty democratic movement is growing, spreading and gaining in strength.” Marxist ideas and the example of the Russian Revolution inspired anti-colonial revolutionaries from Emiliano Zapata (Mexico) and James Connolly (Ireland), to Sun Yat-Sen (China) and Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana). 

What Were the Contours of the Cold War?

By 1948, the Soviet Union had emerged from World War II as a global superpower, extending its influence through the installation of communist governments in Eastern Europe, liberated by the USSR from Nazi occupation. This rise to prominence was accompanied by the onset of the Cold War – a prolonged period of geopolitical tension with the United States, whose leaders sought to counter the spread of communism through the capitalist world. 

Determined to secure its borders, the USSR established pro-Soviet regimes in nations such as Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany. Meanwhile, the United States pursued a strategy of “containment”, bolstering the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) with its presence in 1949. The Soviet counter came in the form of the Warsaw Pact (1955).

The Cold War

The Cold War got decidedly hotter following the proclamation of the Soviet-backed People’s Republic of China (1949), North Korean invasion of South Korea (1950), and the Cuban Revolution (1959). Though Soviet and American soldiers never technically clashed, proxy wars – fueled by arms, money, and military expertise – raged across the globe, from Afghanistan to Vietnam. 

For over seven decades, the Soviet Union exercised profound influence over socialist-learning countries and the communist world, through foreign policy, propaganda, political support, and military intervention. The Cold War officially ended when the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was formally dissolved as a sovereign state in 1991.

Archaeological evidence shows that human activity in North America dates back roughly 13,000 years, with spots like the Clovis site in New Mexico providing key discoveries, including unique stone tools found alongside remains of extinct animals. New Mexico is notable for its high concentration of archaeological sites, with over 190,000 recorded to date. This abundance is attributed to the state’s arid climate, which aids in the preservation of artifacts, and its rich history of indigenous cultures, such as the Ancestral Puebloans, who established extensive communities in the region. Here are ten must-visit ancient sites in New Mexico.

1. Chaco Culture National Historical Park

Chaco Culture National Historical Park in northwestern New Mexico preserves the remnants of a major center of Ancestral Puebloan culture that flourished between 850 and 1250 CE. The Chacoans constructed monumental stone buildings, known as “great houses,” some reaching up to four stories high with hundreds of rooms. These structures, including the notable Pueblo Bonito, showcase advanced masonry techniques and precise astronomical alignments, reflecting the Chacoans’ sophisticated understanding of architecture and celestial events.

When you visit Chaco Canyon, you’ll notice that the park features a nine-mile loop road that provides access to five major Chacoan sites, each with self-guided trails. Highlights include the expansive Pueblo Bonito and the Great Kiva at Casa Rinconada, a subterranean ceremonial chamber. The park’s remote location also makes it ideal for stargazing, with programs dedicated to exploring the pristine night sky.

To enhance your visit, start at the visitor center to view exhibits and obtain trail guides. Be prepared for limited amenities due to the park’s isolation, and respect the cultural significance of this sacred ancestral homeland.

2. Bandelier National Monument

Bandelier National Monument, located near Los Alamos, New Mexico, spans over 33,000 acres of rugged canyon and mesa terrain. This area preserves the archaeological remnants of the Ancestral Puebloans, who inhabited the region from approximately 1150 to 1550 CE. Visitors can explore cliff dwellings carved into volcanic tuff, standing masonry walls, and petroglyphs that offer insights into the daily lives and culture of these early inhabitants.

A highlight of the monument is the Main Loop Trail, a 1.2-mile path that guides visitors through key archaeological sites, including the impressive Tyuonyi Pueblo and the cliff-side dwellings of Long House. For a more adventurous experience, the Alcove House Trail leads to a large alcove 140 feet above the canyon floor, accessible via a series of ladders and stone steps.

Bandelier offers diverse hiking opportunities, wildlife viewing, and stunning landscapes shaped by ancient volcanic activity. The park’s visitor center provides educational exhibits and information to enhance the experience.

3. Aztec Ruins National Monument

This iconic monument is located in northwestern New Mexico. It preserves the remnants of a 12th-century Ancestral Puebloan community. Despite its name, the site has no connection to the Aztec civilization; early settlers mistakenly attributed the ruins to them.

The monument features the Aztec West Great House, a multi-story structure with over 400 interconnected rooms, original timber roofs, and a reconstructed Great Kiva, a ceremonial chamber that will help you learn about the spiritual life of its builders.

You can embark on a half-mile, self-guided trail through the great house, exploring its intricate architecture and preserved artifacts. The visitor center, once the home of pioneering archaeologist Earl Morris, houses a museum with 900-year-old pottery and jewelry and offers the 15-minute film “Aztec Ruins: Footprints of the Past.” The monument was designated a World Heritage Site in 1987.

4. Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument

Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, located in southwestern New Mexico, preserves the ancient homes of the Mogollon people, who inhabited the area during the late 1200s CE.

When visiting this unique ancient site in New Mexico, you can explore the cliff dwellings via a one-mile loop trail that ascends 180 feet above the canyon floor, providing access to several caves and the rooms constructed within them. The trail is open daily from 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM, with the last entry at 4:00 PM. It’s recommended to allow one to two hours to complete the hike and fully appreciate the site.

The Gila Visitor Center, open from 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM, offers exhibits and information to enhance the experience. Given the monument’s remote location, visitors should plan accordingly, as the 44-mile drive from Silver City can take up to two hours due to the mountainous and winding nature of the road.

5. Taos Pueblo

This remarkable Native American community that has been continuously inhabited for over 1,000 years can be found in northern New Mexico. Its iconic multi-storied adobe structures, built between 1000 and 1450 CE, exemplify traditional Puebloan architecture and have earned the site recognition as both a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a National Historic Landmark.

The Pueblo is divided by the Rio Pueblo de Taos, with the most prominent buildings, Hlauuma (North House) and Hlaukwima (South House), situated on either side of the river. These structures are constructed entirely of adobe, earth mixed with water and straw, formed into bricks and sun-dried, then coated with additional adobe plaster. This traditional building method provides excellent insulation, maintaining comfortable interior temperatures year-round.

The community actively preserves its heritage through traditional ceremonies, language, and crafts. Each year, residents participate in the replastering of the adobe walls, a communal activity that reinforces both the structures and cultural bonds.

Guided tours offer insights into the Pueblo’s history, architecture, and traditions. The community also hosts annual events, such as the Taos Pueblo Pow Wow, featuring traditional dances, music, and crafts. It’s important to remember that Taos Pueblo is a living community; visitors are asked to respect local customs and areas designated as private.

6. Acoma Pueblo (Sky City)

Acoma Pueblo, known as “Sky City,” is perched atop a 367-foot sandstone mesa in New Mexico and is recognized as the oldest continuously inhabited community in North America, with origins dating back to around 1100 A.D. The pueblo’s strategic location was chosen for its defensive advantages against neighboring tribes.

The architecture of Acoma Pueblo is notable for its multi-story adobe buildings, constructed from earth mixed with water and straw, then sun-dried. These structures have been meticulously maintained through generations, reflecting the community’s dedication to preserving their ancestral heritage.

A significant landmark within the pueblo is the San Estévan del Rey Mission Church, built in the 17th century. The construction of this church involved the Acoma people transporting approximately 20,000 tons of adobe, sandstone, straw, and mud up the mesa. Despite its origins during a period of forced labor, the church is now regarded as a cultural treasure by the Acoma community.

When you’re at Acoma Pueblo, you can benefit from guided tours led by tribal members, where you’ll learn about the pueblo’s history, culture, and traditions. The Sky City Cultural Center and Haak’u Museum serve as the starting point for these tours, providing educational exhibits and cultural programs. Tours are available Wednesday through Sunday, with multiple departures daily.

7. Zuni Pueblo

Zuni Pueblo, located in western New Mexico, is the largest of the state’s 19 pueblos, encompassing over 400,000 acres. The Zuni people, known for their unique language and culture, are believed to be descendants of the Ancient Puebloans, with archaeological evidence indicating continuous habitation in the area for approximately 1,300 years.

Visiting Zuni Pueblo offers a rich cultural experience. The A:shiwi A:wan Museum and Heritage Center provides insights into Zuni history and traditions. Guided tours, available through the Zuni Visitor Center, allow visitors to explore significant archaeological and historical sites, including the Middle Village and the ancestral village of Hawikku, the first pueblo encountered by Spanish explorers in 1540.

The Zuni community is renowned for its artistry, particularly in jewelry, pottery, and fetish carvings. Visitors can purchase authentic Zuni crafts directly from local artisans, supporting the preservation of traditional skills.

To fully appreciate the Zuni way of life, consider participating in a cultural adventure tour, which may include traditional cooking classes, embroidery workshops, or visits to artists’ studios.

8. Petroglyph National Monument

This iconic ancient site, located along Albuquerque’s West Mesa, safeguards one of North America’s largest collections of petroglyphs, ancient images etched into volcanic rocks by Native Americans in the western US and early Spanish settlers between 400 and 700 years ago. These carvings, numbering around 24,000, depict animals, people, and symbols, serving as a vital record of cultural expression and holding profound spiritual significance for contemporary Indigenous communities.

When visiting, make sure to explore the monument’s distinct areas, including Boca Negra Canyon, Rinconada Canyon, Piedras Marcadas Canyon, and the Volcanoes Day Use Area. Trails wind through stunning landscapes where petroglyphs are easily visible, offering opportunities for reflection and connection with the past. The monument’s volcanic cones, located in the Volcanoes Day Use Area, also provide sweeping views of the surrounding terrain.

Begin your journey at the Las Imágenes Visitor Center, where knowledgeable staff can provide maps and insights into the monument’s rich history.

9. Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument

Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument, located near Mountainair, New Mexico, preserves the remnants of three 17th-century Spanish missions: Quarai, Abó, and Gran Quivira. These sites offer a glimpse into the interactions between Spanish colonizers and the Puebloan peoples, highlighting a period marked by cultural exchange and conflict.

The monument’s history dates back to the early 1600s when Spanish missionaries established churches alongside thriving Pueblo communities. The missions were constructed between 1622 and 1635, aiming to convert the indigenous population to Christianity. However, by the late 1670s, drought, disease, and tensions between the Spanish and Native Americans led to the abandonment of these settlements.

When you visit Salinas Pueblo Missions, you can explore the well-preserved ruins of the mission churches and surrounding structures. Each site features interpretive trails that guide visitors through the historical landscapes. The Headquarters Visitor Center in Mountainair provides exhibits and information to enhance the experience.

10. El Morro National Monument

Located in western New Mexico, El Morro National Monument is a sandstone promontory that has served as a significant landmark for centuries. Known as “Inscription Rock,” its base features over 2,000 inscriptions and petroglyphs left by Ancestral Puebloans, Spanish explorers, and American travelers, documenting their journeys and interactions.

Between approximately 1275 and 1350 AD, up to 600 Ancestral Puebloans resided atop El Morro in a 355-room pueblo known as Atsinna, meaning “place of writings on the rock.” The reliable waterhole at the base made it an ideal settlement location.

Visitors can explore the Inscription Trail, a 0.5-mile loop that leads to the pool and past numerous inscriptions and petroglyphs. For a more extensive experience, the 2-mile Headland Trail ascends to the mesa top, offering panoramic views and access to the Atsinna ruins.

The visitor center provides exhibits and a 15-minute introductory film detailing El Morro’s cultural and natural history. Operating hours vary seasonally; it’s advisable to check current schedules before planning a visit.

Norwegian immigration to the United States began in 1825 when the region was experiencing political problems regarding religion. The first ship of Norwegian immigrants to sail to the United States was called Restauration. It was a sloop, a low type of ship with only one mast. These ships would become the common vessel for Norwegian immigrants migrating across the Atlantic Ocean. Norwegians who settled in the United States carried their culture with them. This included a decorative technique known as rosemaling.

How Did Norwegian-American Folk Art Come to Exist?

Restauration sailed from Stavanger in July 1825 and spent three months at sea before arriving in New York in October of that same year. It held six families on the small vessel. The journey was hard, with cramped, wet, and dangerous conditions. It was common to lose family members during voyages like these. Restauration’s inhabitants settled in upstate New York and took on the nickname “sloopers,” named for the ships they brought while immigrating. This was the beginning of a mass-immigration. Besides Ireland in the 19th century, Norway lost the highest percentage of its population to emigration.

Norwegians who immigrated to the United States in the following decades dispersed to different areas across the country, with some of the most prominent areas being Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and later into the Dakotas. The Upper Midwest had fertile land with black, rich soil. With the vast majority of newly arrived Norwegians being farmers, this was an enticing region, especially compared to the rocky terrain of their previous homes. In the 1870s, Norwegian immigration was at an all-time high. A Norwegian-American man named Andreas Ueland, from Minnesota, returned to Norway in 1871, where he found his hometown to be infected with “America Fever,” in which there was no joy to be found, and everyone wanted to leave as if they were homesick for a country they’d never seen. Norwegian-Americans settling in the United States brought their cultural traditions with them, including a folk art technique called rosemaling.

Traditional Decorative Painting

Rosemaling began in the mid-18th century in the Trondheim area before spreading to the regions south of Trondheim. It is sometimes translated to “rose painting” in English, but this is likely a mistranslation, for roses are rarely depicted within rosemaling. It is more likely that it means “decorative painting,” as some rural communities in Norway used the word rosa or rosut for “decorative” in their dialect. When rural communities were exposed to Baroque and Rococo art from continental Europe, they sought to mimic the intricate designs with materials they had available to them. However, in some ways, the style also mimics the carving techniques used before the invention of rosemaling.

Some of the first buildings to be painted in rosemaling were churches, though it would eventually spread to walls, doors, furniture, utensils, storage chests, and more. Traditional paints were made from local materials, such as red from red iron oxide or blue from woad dye. The painting tools were locally made as well, using wood and animal hair to create paintbrushes. These paintbrushes needed to be flexible to create the soft scrolls and twists of rosemaling.

Upon arriving in the United States, people naturally wished to be reminded of home. Norwegian Americans carried on the tradition of rosemaling in every way they could, even in the face of progressing modernization. Vesterheim Norwegian-American Museum in Decorah, Iowa, has a large collection of rosemaling examples, both from Norway and the United States. Examples from their collection of modern rosemaling for the Norwegian diaspora in the Upper Midwest include a mid-20th century refrigerator decorated with rosemaling and a Dawn Dish Soap bottle that has been painted with rosemaling as well. Since most Norwegian Americans worked as farmers, their winters caused them to seek supplementary work elsewhere. A common job for Norwegian-American farmers to work in the winter was painting rooms and furniture.

Hallingdal

There are many different styles of rosemaling, depending on what region in Norway the artist was from. Many Norwegian-Americans continued in the styles of their family’s regions, but after generations of being in the United States, new styles began to appear as well, such as the American Rogaland style. Styles developed naturally in Norway. People from isolated rural communities saw these art styles produced in cities and then brought them back to their communities to emulate. However, due to a lack of formal training, artists were able to take liberties and become expressive in their work. This caused styles to develop individually with populations separated by distance or natural landscape.

This Hallingdal chest was created by Anders Olsen Hoff in 1816. The Hallingdal style typically consists of thick black linework and bright colors, which form large flowers and scrolls throughout the design. Hallingdal style rosemaling usually foregoes shading, and if it uses shading within the design, it is typically kept to a minimum. The boldness of the linework and flowers are a hallmark of the Hallingdal region’s style of rosemaling. Circles with cross-hatching, especially in the center of the design or in the center of flowers, are also common in the Hallingdal style.

Valdres

The Valdres style was typically created with red, blue, or black backgrounds. Older examples are more likely to be painted with red backgrounds, though this is not always the case. The Valdres style has the most realistic flowers of all the rosemaling styles, almost always presented in naturally occurring ways, like growing from the ground or a pot. The flowers can be painted as if they are bunched like bouquets, potted in decorative pots, or rooted in the ground landscape style. They can often be identified as actual species of flowers, and are almost always bunched together in a natural way rather than simply aesthetic. In the United States, some instances of the Valdres style include monochromatic landscapes called chinoiserie, which would be painted alongside the rosemaling on a different area of the object. An example would be a hat box with rosemaling on the lid and chinoiserie around the sides.

East & West Agder

East and West Agder are separated by a mountain range, which caused their rosemaling styles to develop separately, despite their being so close geographically. However, they do have some similarities, such as the symmetrical nature of the designs. East Agder typically has very bold, geometric flowers and shapes. The flowers often grow out of vases or are bunched into bouquets. West Agder has bold colors and intricately painted scrolls. In the center of the design is a cartouche. It is common for West Agder to sport a red or matching “crown of flames” above the cartouche, which is visible in the 1881 chest above.

Telemark

The Telemark style of rosemaling is one of the best known, and one of the most common as the region became known for its rosemaling talents. It has a free-moving design that is reminiscent of dancing, emphasized by the strong use of color. Colors are often complementary, creating a striking dance of color as the scrolls twist around the object. The Telemark style places great importance on scrollwork and is often made up entirely out of scrolls. It is one of the most recognizable styles of rosemaling for the “C” shape in the center of the designs, which is present across nearly all examples and is a hallmark of the region’s folk art. This shape often has a “knot” near the center of the design, with the focal point often being that knot or the negative space it creates as the scrolls move away from it.

On the doors of the cupboard in the photograph, the “C” is visible as a dark green and red swirl in the center of the door’s design. If there are flowers present in Telemark rosemaling design, it is usually a made-up species of flower to fit the design as needed. The only exception would be what is referred to as a “Telemark Rose,” which is a simple rose that uses brushwork to create shading with transparency. However, fantastical flowers are the most common form of flowers in this style. The Telemark style is very rarely symmetrical in design, as the scrolls all flow in the same direction as the “C” in the center.

Gudbrandsdal

Similarly to the Telemark style, the Gudbrandsdal style also heavily values scrollwork within its designs. However, the scrollwork in Gudbrandsdal utilizes less color and becomes more intricate in the scrollwork itself. The scrolls are usually the most developed of all of the rosemaling styles when it comes to scrollwork, as it is meant to mimic its predecessor of wood carving. Gudbrandsdal is directly inspired by acanthus carvings from the region before rosemaling had become the norm. Some sections of the scrolls can often appear to be turned over, giving an almost 3-dimensional effect. The flowers that are usually present in the Gudbrandsdal style are in direct contrast to the flowing movement of the scrolls. They often sit on top of the design, heavy and still compared to the movement around them in the baroque-like scrollwork.

Modern Use

In the United States, Norwegian-Americans were proud to continue their folk art traditions and sought to keep them from fading into the past. Due to a large number of Norwegian Americans living roughly within the same region of the United States, the interest in the community’s heritage was easier to keep alive as a shared community trait. Some ways to keep the interest alive and offer some form of cultural connection to the Norwegian-Americans of the area were to open attractions that got people excited and interested in their heritage. Such attractions are the more obvious choices, like museums, while others are creative choices, like a Holiday Inn in Washington Island, Wisconsin.

A photograph from the 1950s shows one of the hotel’s rooms painted with rosemaling. Norwegian Americans were not shy about incorporating their folk art into their daily lives. Some followed their ancestors’ traditions of rosemaling everything, from refrigerators to dish soap! Today, many Norwegian-American homes continue to have artwork that includes rosemaling. Many recent examples of rosemaling are mainly done by family members, local artists such as Andrea Herkert, or Norwegian artists who frequent the Upper Midwest to teach rosemaling courses to Norwegian Americans such as Sigmund Årseth.

Norwegian-American Folk Art and American Rogaland

As the generations continued, Norwegian Americans began to develop different styles independent of the styles their ancestors were familiar with. A style called the Rogaland style began to take on a more symmetrical design around the 1970s, earning itself the new distinction of becoming the American Rogaland style. This style often looks like looking into a kaleidoscope, with its rigidly symmetrical design full of flowers, usually in a circular format.

Rosemaling was born from a rural desire for Baroque and Rococo art, but with a local and affordable twist that created its own genre of folk art which varied across regions due to the isolation of communities amidst the mountainous landscape of Norway. This tradition was carried from Norway to the United States via the Atlantic Ocean, and it continues to live on in the Norwegian diaspora of the American Midwest and elsewhere.

Lucas Cranach the Elder was a remarkable artist, businessman, and political figure. He was a close friend of the leader of the Protestant Reformation movement Martin Luther, with his art actively shaping the visual culture of the era. Art historians name Cranach the intermediary figure between the classic Renaissance painting and Mannerism, a proto-Baroque art movement that manipulated form and proportion. His son, Lucas Cranach the Younger, took on running his father’s workshop and was soon recognized as a painter with his own signature style.

Lucas Cranach the Elder: The Leading Artist of the Protestant Reformation 

Lucas Cranach was not the first painter in his family and he received his training from his father. His early life remains a mystery since he gained prominence in his thirties, at the beginning of the sixteenth century. He became particularly famous in the 1520s as the leading painter of visual propaganda for a new religious movement, Protestantism. Led by an ex-friar Martin Luther, Protestants demanded to limit the power of clergy over interpreting the Bible, ban selling indulgences, and get rid of idolatrous images in churches.

Lucas Cranach the Elder created numerous portraits of Luther and his wife (an ex-nun who went against the Catholic rule) illustrated his pamphlets, and even became the godfather of his first son. While Luther did not call for the destruction of all religious images recognizing their educational power, some of his followers took it too literary. What followed was the tragic event of iconoclasm that raged in Northern Europe, with crowds looting churches and destroying precious works of art.

However, Cranach’s Protestant paintings hardly reflect the drama and emotional tension experienced during the Reformation era. The works look pleasant, unprovocative, and even fashionable, made to decorate the clients’ homes rather than promote a certain world order. Indeed, Cranach kept his personal beliefs away from his work, eagerly accepting commissions from the Catholics and painting religious scenes for them.

From Court Painter to City Mayor

According to many Cranach experts, the most productive and remarkable period of his career happened during his stay in Vienna in the early 1500s. There, he experimented with genres and forms, sought inspiration in the works of Albrecht Durer, exchanged opinions with other artists, and enjoyed relative creative freedom. Apart from portraiture, he experimented with landscape backgrounds, which were often overlooked by other artists of his time. However, it is necessary to say that those promoting Cranach’s early period of work often accuse him of commercializing his later work and turning from an artist to a businessman. Contrary to the beliefs of the modern era, in Cranach’s time there was nothing shameful in monetizing skills and appeasing clients.

In Vienna, he was noticed by the Elector of Saxony, Frederick III, and invited to work for him in the city of Wittenberg. Frederick III was also a prominent Protestant who played a crucial role in the Reformation: after the condemnation of the Protestant teaching by the Vatican, the Elector saved Martin Luther’s life by providing him refuge. For almost fifty years, Lucas Cranach the Elder worked as a court painter to the Elector, earning the post of the Wittenburg city mayor and the official noble status. Cranach even designed the insignia for his family, with which he signed his paintings—a winged serpent holding a ruby ring in its mouth.

Cranach’s Workshop 

The headstone of Lucas Cranach the Elder’s tomb holds a title he was the proudest of during his lifetime—the swiftest painter of all. In Cranach’s practice, fast work was not synonymous with low quality: he prided himself on being able to successfully fulfill a commission much faster than his competitors. The reason for this was not only his outstanding skill but a well-organized process inside his workshop. The Cranachs were skilled and talented entrepreneurs with immaculate bookkeeping who ran a successful business. Apart from a painting studio, they kept a store that sold artistic materials and pigments which was the only shop in Wittenburg, thanks to the monopoly granted to them by the Elector.

Cranach’s workshop was not a one-man enterprise. Apart from his family members, he employed more than a dozen other painters. Overall, around 20 men worked in his studio, each of them having a distinctive specialization like hands, costumes, backgrounds, or others. They kept templates and stencils for popular compositions and offered complete sets of details and tones to their clients. Lucas Cranach the Elder, as well as his son later, had very limited involvement in the painting process. In most cases, he simply observed the strict following of guidelines and made sure that the works bore his signature style. The artistic dynasty of Cranachs continued for more than a century, with its last representative being the great-grandson of the original workshop owner. The later branches of the Cranach family tree included many notable characters from European history, including the famous writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

Cranach’s Signature Style 

As you might have noticed, Lucas Cranach enjoyed great popularity during his lifetime, yet his recognition as a crucial figure in the German history of art happened several centuries later, in the Modern era. The art of the late nineteenth century, with its experimental treatment of line and form, opened the door for the true appreciation of Cranach’s work.

Many art historians believe that Cranach was the artist who stood between the old canons of Renaissance art and the new rules of Mannerism. Mannerism was an early form of Baroque art that used distorted forms and exaggerated colors to manipulate the emotional intensity of the work. Cranach used elongated flowing shapes (particularly, in the rendering of women’s bodies), bold tones, and patterns. Instead of idealizing his clients’ features, he sometimes even exaggerated them, yet never crossing the line and making them look like offensive caricatures.

One of the most prominent features of Cranach the Elder’s art was his deep admiration of landscape and unusual attention to it. At the time, the genre of landscape had already existed for centuries but was considered a genre of lesser value than portraiture. Surprisingly, Cranach recognized the symbolic and emotional potential of a landscape scene and paid careful attention to the backgrounds of his works. Sometimes, he even moved the figures to the side, as if cropping the image, in order to expose more of a nature scene behind the principal characters. Subsequently, landscape would become one of the signature genres of Post-Reformation art that switched religious imagery to ideologically neutral scenes of nature.

Lucas Cranach the Younger: The Heir of the Great Artist

From his early days, Lucas Cranach the Younger was trained to become the next great Cranach in the family and take over his father’s workshop. He started by copying the master’s work and managing the studio in his absence. He also followed his political inclinations, becoming a counselor and then a mayor of Nuremberg. As an artist, Cranach the Younger moved on to develop his own stylistic nuances. Particularly, he preferred large-scale, multi-figure compositions with more architectural elements. His choice of color was also distinctively different from his father’s, yet scholars still struggle to distinguish his early work.

Specifically, such a distinction becomes impossible in the works from the mid-1550s. In 1553, Lucas Cranach the Elder died at the age of 81, leaving an array of unfinished projects. In the following years, Cranach the Younger would finish them for his father, sometimes allowing himself creative liberties. For instance, the altarpiece for the Weimar’s Church of St. Peter and Paul still holds an endearing and heartwarming reminder of family love and respect.

Next to the figure of Jesus crucified, three figures stand, observing the scene: John the Baptist, Lucas Cranach the Elder, and his friend Martin Luther, who passed away in 1546. The blood from Christ’s wound squirts directly on Cranach’s forehead, with the Savior himself discreetly eyeing him from above. Although it seems absurd today, for Cranach the Younger, this scene probably signified the great hope for the salvation of his father’s soul and forgiveness of his sins.

Plato’s cave allegory is a famous and influential idea from his book The Republic. It contains an important point about how things seem compared to how they really are. According to this story, people are like prisoners in a cave. It talks about moving from ignorance to knowledge and what it would be like to think for yourself—to be enlightened by philosophy and find out what is true. But what is the allegory truly saying?

Plato’s Cave Allegory and Its Symbolic Elements

Plato’s cave allegory is a metaphor that examines human perception, knowledge, and enlightenment within his book The Republic. It depicts prisoners in a dark cave who have been there since birth. They are chained, facing a wall with no view behind them.

A fire burns behind the prisoners, while a walkway is between the fire and the captives’ backs. On this raised platform, hidden handlers carry cut-out figures who cast shadows onto the wall opposite the prisoners. For these captives, the shadows seem real—they do not realize their existence consists only of flickering forms—and thus take up all their attention.

This allegory illustrates a world of ignorance (the cave) and how our perceptions can limit us (being shackled inside from birth so we can only look at one wall). Without philosophy or critical thinking, we’re like prisoners with chains here.

We don’t question what we’ve always known because we don’t know there might be something else out there—something truer or fairer.

The story of a prisoner breaking free from a cave and journeying outside symbolizes how philosophers seek knowledge and wisdom. It’s difficult and sometimes painful to leave ignorance behind (which the cave represents). That’s why the freed person must first struggle into the light and feel disoriented.

In daylight, everything is revealed for what it truly is—a mere copy that we see because light reflects off it. This overwhelming experience stands for understanding Plato’s Theory of Forms: seeing beyond physical things to their flawless patterns.

When this person returns to enlighten others, they get mocked and rejected: people don’t like having to relearn reality! This part shows how hard it can be for someone wise to make others see sense when they’d rather just watch shadows on a screen.

Philosophical Themes in the Allegory

Plato’s cave allegory explores important philosophical concepts fundamental to his philosophy. These include the difference between reality and perception, the Theory of Forms, and the role of philosophers in society.

At its heart, the allegory contrasts the prisoners’ perceived reality—as shown by shadows on a cave wall—with what lies beyond the cave. It raises profound questions about what constitutes true reality and whether this can be trustingly based on how things appear to our senses alone.

The Theory of Forms, one of Plato’s key ideas, holds that there is an unchanging realm of perfect forms or ideas beyond our touchable world of flux. These forms provide the true nature of all things we experience—with physical objects being imperfect copies (participations) of these ideal forms.

The story about leaving the cave represents how the soul gets closer to understanding these forms—it’s like a picture of discovering things and seeing them in a new light.

Plato also considers what this allegory means for philosophers in society. If you understand the forms, does that mean you have to tell everybody else what you’ve found? He uses the idea of going back into the cave to show that people might not believe you—they might even get angry with you!

In Plato’s version, philosophers are like guides who lead people out of ignorance and into knowledge. This way of thinking about education and leadership is based on wisdom and truth-seeking. It points out how important philosophers are when it comes to raising the awareness of whole societies.

The Allegory as a Critique of Society and Politics

Plato’s cave allegory has implications for politics and society, including how we think about power, governance, and the role of a leader such as a philosopher-king. It uses metaphor to suggest that some societies are blind to what is truly valuable and good. They may be led by people who mistake shadows for real things, just as the prisoners do.

Plato suggests that this state of affairs is common in political systems where power and wealth are prized above everything else—systems that do not highly value wisdom or fairness. The allegory proposes instead that we should build a society where those who have had direct experience of the light should guide others and that only they can rule well if they understand these ultimate truths best.

Plato’s ideal ruler is known as the philosopher-king, who has escaped the cave and gained enlightenment from the forms. Due to understanding what reality is really like, such a person is best suited for leadership because their decisions are based on knowledge about what is good.

An example of this can be found in Plato’s Republic, where he suggests an extensive education program for guardians so that they may one day lead with wisdom and virtue.

The allegory isn’t only meant to critique existing societies in theory. It also has practical applications by asking readers to reconsider why they accept certain people as leaders over others. Shouldn’t rulers be chosen because they have insight into how best society should run and not simply because of their family background or how much money they have?

Plato criticized the Athenian democracy of his day because he thought the policy was determined by ill-informed people who were good at persuasion rather than careful thought.

In suggesting that we should look to philosopher-kings as rulers, Plato wants us to reconsider what we value in leaders and consider whether it might be better for those in charge not to pursue their own interests. Instead, they should be searching for justice and truth—even if that means sometimes going against what most people seem to want.

Education and Enlightenment in the Allegory

In addition, the cave allegory by Plato accurately describes how people learn and grow on a personal level, showing that becoming enlightened means a lot more than just learning facts. It is a complete transformation from not knowing to knowing.

Plato brilliantly portrays the process of education and personal growth in this story as like struggling out of the darkness inside a cave and coming into the sunlight—an image so powerful it suggests the change itself beyond simply knowing things.

Before embarking on their journey towards education, individuals are metaphorical prisoners inside a cave—restricted to what they already know and understand (they don’t even know how much they don’t know!). The shadows on the wall appearing real to them can be thought of as representing accepted ignorance or half-knowledge.

As students begin to question and explore new ideas (which can be uncomfortable), it’s as if they are entering a long tunnel that leads out into the open. They are leaving behind old ways of thinking—and stepping into unknown territory.

It’s like walking out of a dark cave into sunlight for the first time. The brightness may hurt their eyes, and they may not see well at once. But as they adjust, they recognize how incredible it is to have this new understanding! In fact, they might feel tempted to return to the cave where everybody else is still living—simply because out there alone might be lonely.

Allegory of the Cave and Plato’s Views on Knowledge and Being

At the center of Plato’s way of thinking is a difference between the universe of appearances, which we can only access through our senses, and a realm of perfect forms, accessed only through rational thought.

The cave represents the physical world as we see it: illusory and constantly changing (the shadows dancing on the wall). Outside the cave, sunlight reveals another world. It stands for the platonic forms, where truth doesn’t shift, and nothing is ever lost. One can only understand them by using reason.

The story illustrates Plato’s view that knowledge gained through our senses isn’t trustworthy or complete—it just hints at what true knowledge might be like. To him, genuine knowledge (episteme) comes from grasping eternal forms. These abstract ideals exist perfectly somewhere, such as beauty itself rather than beautiful things or just acts that happen to be fair or good.

Hence, knowledge is more than just learning facts. It is a transformative experience that takes us from ignorance to enlightenment and from unexamined beliefs to considered judgments.

In addition, Plato’s allegory of the cave expresses his metaphysical view that there are two distinct worlds: the sensible world of becoming—which is always changing and ceasing to exist—and the intelligible world of being, which is timeless and permanent.

The prisoner’s progress out of the cave can be seen as an image of the soul moving from illusion (sensory deception binds us to the world of becoming) into truth (the forms are only found in the realm of being). In this way, Plato uses it to represent how we come to know things and what existence really means.

So, What Is the Hidden Meaning of Plato’s Cave Allegory?

Plato’s Cave Allegory isn’t just a story—it takes you on a gripping journey from illusion to insight. Imagine being shackled within a dim cave, where flickering silhouettes become your only reality. But what if there was more to life than those shadows? Plato dares us to break free and uncover the truth for ourselves.

At its core, this allegory plunges into the heart of knowledge: What does it mean to know something? What’s real versus what seems real? It challenges us to go beyond what we take in at first glance and consider that there may be unchanging truths outside the “cave” of our comprehension.

In other words, the allegory encourages enlightenment seekers (that’s us) not to settle for limited information when greater truths could be discovered. It serves as a wake-up call and timeless advice to keep asking questions and searching beneath surfaces.

Chili peppers (Capsicum) are a group of flowering plants from the family Solanaceae native to the Americas, specifically to the areas of what is today Peru, Bolivia, and Central Mexico. Once used to spice up traditional indigenous foods, in the 500 years since the conquest, the humble berry has spread around the world, evolving numerous varieties, introducing new flavors to old cuisines, and testing heat tolerances from Hungary to India.

Origin Story: The First Chili Peppers

Archeological findings have shown chili seeds associated with cooking, war, and ritual utensils and suggest that the berry had been domesticated as a spice by pre-Columbian civilizations and communities 7,500 years ago, in line with the beginning of agriculture. It was most likely domesticated because of its ability to preserve foods for extended periods. Its seeds were spread by different species of birds to the north and south of the Americas, allowing for the evolution of different varieties.

The scientific name capsicum comes from the Greek word kapsimo, which means “to burn.” The original name chili comes from the Nahuatl chīlli, while pepper (pimiento) is believed to have been used by the first conquistadors, as they found the berry’s characteristic spiciness similar to the already-known black pepper.

Today, various domesticated varieties of chili peppers dominate a big part of the world’s cuisine. The species cultivated include capsicum annuum (jalapeños, cayenne, bell peppers), capsicum frutescens (tabasco, malagueta, piri piri), capsicum chinense (naga and habanero), capsicum pubescens (rocoto peppers) and capsicum baccatum (aji peppers). This berry has become one of the most widely cultivated plants around the globe, serving as an essential spice for the gastronomy and culture of different countries as it adds a unique taste and a feeling of heat to food in Chinese, Mexican, Thai, and Indian cuisine.

Consuming chili peppers has been found to have some health benefits, such as boosting the immune system, reducing the risk of Type 2 diabetes, preventing allergies, and reducing cancer risk. Chilis are also rich in vitamins A, C, and E and contain capsanthin, a potent, cancer-fighting antioxidant that gives them their distinctive red color.

Feel the Burn: What Makes Peppers Spicy?

Capsaicin and other related chemicals are what create peppers’ pungency, which is the characteristic taste and feeling of spiciness, hotness, or heat caused in the body when ingested or applied topically. Both the pepper species and the growing environment affect their pungency; those grown in environments with low water availability are the spiciest, for example, the habanero. The spiciness of chili peppers is measured with the Scoville Heat Scale, which puts in the lowest levels variants such as the bell pepper, the sweet pepper, and the paprika, and in the highest, variants such as the Red Savina habanero, the chocolate habanero, and the Dragon’s Breath chili pepper, the hottest pepper in the world.

The sensation of spiciness is generated when capsaicin meets the body’s pain receptors. When these sensory neurons are stimulated, they send signals to the brain through the spinal cord. The brain sends back signals that create the feeling of pain, making the body direct attention to the “affected” area. Some chili peppers can generate so much pain that they have been used as a type of non-lethal weapon in India, where it has been used against people in Kashmir.

When consumed regularly, resistance and tolerance to capsaicin increases, which explains how different people have different tolerance levels to spicy foods. Interestingly, one of the effects of chili peppers’ pungency is that the brain releases endorphins and dopamine to help the body fight against the “threat,” which also causes a feeling of pleasure. The body believes it is in danger, but the mind knows it is not, creating an exciting contrast between pain and pleasure.

Contrary to many other mammals, humans do not “flee” the pain caused by chili peppers. Although most mammals identify ingesting them as a threat, humans, in contrast, have actually been a primary method through which the plant fulfills its evolutionary drive to spread into new environments. Before humans, birds fulfilled this role; they do not experience the same chemical reaction that capsaicin causes in the human body because they do not have the same pain receptors.

In many countries, high tolerance to spiciness is associated with masculinity. In Hungary, for example, peppers are a symbol of virility, and the Kalocsa variety is known as “cat penis.” In Mexico, men tend to eat hotter foods than women, aiming to sweat while consuming them. For some cultures, consuming “hot” food is related to preserving the vital heat one acquires as one grows older, as it “gives strength” or fosters sexual activity.

The Columbian Exchange: How Chili Peppers Took Over

Chili peppers were first domesticated as a spice in what is now Mexico and were mainly diversified in Peru through agriculture and artificial selection. The plant was registered for the first time in Western historical records at the end of the 15th century. Shortly after the arrival of Spanish invaders to the Americas, the Spanish friar Bernardino de Sahagún had already noted various chilmolli (a Nahuatl word for chili pepper sauces) in the central Mexican highlands.

With the commercialization of goods as well as the routes of the slave trade, Europeans brought chili peppers to the Old World in what is known today as “The Columbian Exchange.” Two empires dominated these routes: the Spanish, ruled by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (Spain to Italy and the Middle East), and the Ottoman Empire (to the Eastern and Southern Mediterranean, the Balkans, and up to Hungary).

After its introduction, a variety of the species capsicum annuum most commonly known as the bell pepper started to be successfully cultivated in regions of southern Europe. Although the plant was first used as an ornament in aristocratic houses, farmers began to rapidly cultivate it in the 16th century as a spice. In Europe, chili peppers were considered the “poor people’s peppers,” as they were more affordable than Asian black peppers, which likely resulted in the artificially developed variety of bell peppers in Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. In Hungary, the production of chili peppers became industrialized in the 19th century, gaining culinary and cultural importance through the production of paprika, which (believe it or not) is made from grinding dry red bell peppers. Today, paprika is used all over Europe to spice up hams, sausages, and many other dishes.

Different cultures discovered or ascribed different gastronomic or therapeutic uses to the plant, which ultimately reached regions including Ethiopia, South India, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, the Pacific Islands, China, and Japan. Today, chili production is concentrated in China, Indonesia, Mexico, and India, where the Portuguese introduced it in the 17th century. The integration of chili peppers in Indian cuisine is an example of how some foreign cultural elements brought to new places by the historical trade of goods, often linked to colonization and imperialism, become important local cultural elements.

The uses and culinary techniques related to chili peppers vary in different geographical locations and are dependent on many factors, including the maturity of the berry or culturally codified color schemes. Among the Aztecs, for example, red and green were considered naturally complementary colors; the green chili was associated with the Rain God as the green color symbolizes water, while the red chili represents the feeling of hotness. In Europe, red chili peppers are often associated with emotions and historically viewed as stimulants or aphrodisiacs. For instance, Hungarians refer to being angry or agitated as praprikás: “to be like pepper.” Rather than blushing “like a tomato,” they “blush like a paprika.”

Spicing Things Up: The Culinary Popularity of Chili Peppers

Cultural gastronomies demonstrate how spicy food can become a great marker of identity. In Italy, for example, Calabrians have come to use peppers as a significant element of their identity, while in Hungary, the distinctive use of paprika in goulash marked an identitarian differentiation from Austrians in the 18th century.

In Mexico, beans and stews are cooked with small chili peppers as the base. Spiciness has dominated Mexican cuisine to the point that it’s even added to sweets and desserts. Hot sauces are common in all of Latin America, varying in taste, color or pungency depending on the kinds of chili peppers used. Large green chili peppers can be consumed as vegetables in Mexico, similar to bell peppers in Spain.

The chili pepper’s popularity has made Hatch, a village in New Mexico in the United States, known as the chili capital of the world—the town hosts the Hatch Chile Festival every year. In Budapest, there’s a whole museum dedicated to the chili, and after a great flood that destroyed the southern city of Szeged, it became a symbol of revival. Other museums dedicated to chili peppers can be found in Diamante in Calabria and Espelette in the Basque Country, showcasing how chili peppers have become a tourist attraction as well as a marker of cultural heritage.

Chili Culture Under Threat?

Today, Mexico is experiencing adverse cultural and economic effects caused by gentrification and the touristification of its cities, and the chili is not immune. This gentrification has been driven by the arrival and takeover of foreigners, specifically digital nomads, who often prefer non-spicy food, leading some traditional dishes to lose the characteristic spiciness that has been present throughout the country’s entire cultural history. This is affecting the evolution of food traditions in the country and prompting different urban local communities to raise their voices against the adverse economic and cultural effects gentrification is having in Mexico’s main cities.

It’s clear that spiciness in food is an essential gastronomic tradition as well as a cultural identifier—is it time to protect and treat it as a cultural heritage amid globalization and the increase in migration around the globe?

Bibliography:

Katz, E. (2009). Chili Pepper, from Mexico to Europe: Food, imaginary and cultural identity.

Estudios del Hombre, Serie Antropología de la Alimentación. Food, Imaginaries and Cultural Frontiers. Essays in Honour of Helen Macbeth. Guadalajara, Mexico: Universidad de Guadalajara, 213-232.

Long-Solis, J. (1992). Les apports mexicains dans le monde méditerranéen. Diogène 159. 41-54.

____________ (1990). Creencias acerca del Capsicum. In Barbro Dahlgren (ed.) II Coloquio de historia de la religión en Mesoamérica y áreas afines. México: iia/unam. 271-278.

Normah MN, Chin HF, Reed BM (2013). Conservation of tropical plant species. New York: Springer. p. 397. ISBN 9781461437758. Retrieved 28 November 2018.

Nunn, N., & Qian, N. (2010). The Columbian exchange: A history of disease, food, and ideas. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(2), 163-188.

Pandit, M. K., Pandit, R., & Bairagi, S. (2020). Chili. In Ethnopharmacological Investigation of Indian Spices (pp. 253-268). IGI Global.

Huey Newton was the youngest of seven children, born to a Baptist minister on February 17, 1942, in Monroe, Louisiana. The Newton family eventually moved to Oakland, California where Newton, alongside Bobby Seale, would later establish the Black Panther Party in 1966. Although Newton played an important role in improving black lives, his life was not without controversy.

How Was Huey Newton Shaped by His Formative Years?

Newton’s youth was shaped by urban unrest, police brutality, repression and an education system that failed black students. Upon moving to Oakland, he did become involved in committing crimes like dislodging coins from parking meters and later in 1964 he was convicted of assault with a deadly weapon serving 8 months in jail.

In high school, Newton realized that he was functionally illiterate, a struggle he traced back to white teachers. However, his older brother was a good student, and Huey borrowed his copy of Plato’s The Republic and worked hard to improve his reading skills. [1] Newton would even go on to publish his own book, Revolutionary Suicide, in 1973.

While in Junior High School, Huey Newton and a classmate set up a gang called the Brotherhood to challenge racism at school. Although Newtons early years in school were difficult, he graduated from Oakland Technical High School in 1959.

Newton continued his studies at Merritt College in Oakland- during this time he met Bobby Seale with whom he would later set up the Black Panther Party. They both joined the local Afro-American Association where they read books by the likes of W.E.B. Du Bois and James Baldwin and began to look closer at the community and the problems they faced.

What Was the Black Panther Party?

The Black Panther Party was initially set up in response to police brutality in African American neighborhoods, but it soon expanded its work and was active across the US between 1966 and 1982. The party was known for its use of self-defense, violent rhetoric and for its hyper-masculine image and lesser known for its work to improve black lives through community work.

Newton and Seale wanted to maximize the potential, and improve, the lives of black communities and knew that to do this there needed to be real change and improvement in a number of areas. [2] To facilitate this, the party was organized around a Ten Point Program which outlined areas requiring change such as an end to police brutality, decent housing and full employment. [3] To implement changes, the party established 65 social programs between 1966 and 1982, including a Free Breakfast for Children Program.

The party educated and empowered black communities across America and made real change, but it was also marked by controversy (both personal and political) and violence during its existence.

What Controversy Did Newton Face?

Although Newton contributed a lot to improve black lives, his life was not without controversy, and he was often in and out of jail or having run-ins with the law. Members of the Black Panther Party were involved in several shoot-outs with the police- over a six-year period 24 members had been killed during gun fights. On 28th October 1967, Newton was wounded and while in hospital was charged with killing a police officer, John Frey, following a shoot-out. [5] The following year he was found guilty of voluntary manslaughter, but in May 1970, a new trial was ordered,
and the charges were dismissed.

In 1974 Newton was accused of murdering a 17-year-old prostitute, Kathleen Smith. He and his then-girlfriend, Gwen Fontaine, fled to Cuba and did not return until 1977. Upon return, Newton stood trial, but the charges were dismissed- he was also acquitted of assault on a tailor in September 1978. In 2007, party member Ericka Huggins stated in an interview that Newton repeatedly raped her and threatened to hurt her children if she told anyone.

How Did Newton Spend his Final Years?

Newton returned to his studies and in 1980 he received a Ph.D. in social philosophy from the University of California Santa Cruz, but his later years continued to be troubled. In 1987, he served nine months in San Quentin for gun charges and in March 1989, served 6 months for stealing $15,000 from an Oakland school. Newton also battled with drug addiction, heavily using cocaine and drinking alcohol. [5]

On August 21, 1989, Huey found out that a film project about his life was falling through. The next day Newton was shot in the face three times outside of a residential complex in Oakland following a drug related dispute with drug dealer Tyrone Robinson.

It is alleged that before he was shot, Newtons last words were, “You can kill my body, but you can’t kill my soul. My soul will live forever!”. [6] Newton is buried at Evergreen Cemetery in Oakland.

Sources:

[1] Judson L. Jeffries, Huey P. Newton, the Radical Theorist (University Press of Mississippi, 2002), p. xxii

[2] Bobby Seale, Seize the Time: The Story of The Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (Second Edition), (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1991), p.413

[3]https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/primary-documents-african-american-history/black-panther-party-ten-point-program-1966/

[4] Pearson, Hugh (1995). The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America. Da Capo Press, 145-47

[5] Judson L. Jeffries, Huey P. Newton, the Radical Theorist (University Press of Mississippi, 2002), p.11.

[6] https://spartacus-educational.com/USAnewtonH.htm

Assemblage is a three-dimensional technique of art. Artists combine three-dimensional objects into sculptural forms that add new contexts to familiar forms and things. Assemblage is a characteristic rather than a category: different artists in different eras invented various names for such constructions. Vladimir Tatlin called them Counter-Reliefs, and Kurt Schwitters used the mysterious term Merz. The technique of assemblage was popular among Cubists, Dadaists, and Pop Artists.

What Is an Assemblage?

Assemblage is a three-dimensional technique of art making. To create an assemblage, artists compile unrelated fragments and elements into a single whole. These fragments are usually everyday objects that were found or purchased by the artist. The term assemblage was coined by the French artist Jean Dubuffet in the 1950s. Dubuffet worked with a variety of materials and techniques and constantly looked for alternatives to traditional forms of art. He was famous for his invention of art brut, meaning rude art, created by untrained artists outside of the domain of the official art world. Surely, the phenomenon of art brut existed well before Dubuffet, yet he managed to indicate this phenomenon and study it, amassing a large collection of works.

Dubuffet himself created collages and assemblages from various objects, including real butterfly wings, straws, broken bottles, and grapevines. Still, although Dubuffet was the first one to approach assemblage from the theoretical point of view,  he was certainly not the first artist to apply this technique. Usually, art historians refer to the Cubist art movement as the pioneering one in the use of assemblage and collage. One of the first works that added three-dimensional elements to the painted surface was Pablo Picasso’s Still Life with Chair Caning. The still life represented a scene happening at a busy Parisian cafe and incorporated a fragment of a chair seat. Conceptually speaking, assemblage is a rather fluid category, existing in between collage (its two-dimensional alternative), sculpture, and installation. Some works featured fragments of painting, which made them even more difficult to categorize.

Found Objects in Art

The use of found objects is an integral part of the assemblage technique. The artists appropriate objects that they either purchased or literally found throughout their everyday lives and repurpose them in a way that drastically alters their meanings and contextual frameworks. Usually, such objects retain their original form and stay recognizable. Still, artists are looking for angles and contexts that could bring something unusual or unexpected to familiar things.

Assemblage usually consists of such objects. At the time when found objects appeared in modern art, they were considered ridiculous and offensive by art critics and the public. Still, as the art world moved forward, the notion of conceptual art, which valued artistic ideas more than their physical form, radically transformed the approach to found objects. Even today, with the wide presence of multimedia technologies, found object assemblages are frequently present at contemporary art exhibitions and fairs.

Famous Assemblage Artists: Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven

Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven was one of the pioneers of assemblage and installation, but she was unfairly ignored by the art world. She was also one of the most prominent Dada artists, far too eccentric for the wider public to accept. Despite the loud, noble title, she lived in poverty most of her life. She received the Baroness title from one of her short-lived marriages to a German Baron. Elsa was the living embodiment of Dada. She was loud, absurd, and shocking for many. She wore tomato cans and curtain rings as jewelry and used post stamps instead of makeup.

The Baroness had a notoriously crude and often scatological sense of humor, and her artworks—mostly assemblages and performances—expressed it fully. Not many artworks by Elsa have survived, but the remaining few of them present a surprising new perspective on the history of art. Her assemblage God, built from plumbing traps and pipes, was strikingly similar in concept to another iconic sculpture by a close friend of the Baroness—Marcel Duchamp’s Fountain.

Marcel Duchamp

Duchamp’s Fountain had almost no signs of artistic involvement except for the signed pseudonym found on the side of the overturned urinal. Other works by Duchamp, however, had a more complex structure. Duchamp’s assemblages included a bicycle wheel mounted on a stool or a set of intricate mechanisms with no apparent purpose hidden in a small leather-covered box.

The content of Duchamp’s works often referred to his contemporary issues of gender, sexuality, and social order. While his friend Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven presented herself as the force of crude instinct, Duchamp was her antithesis—a reserved and quiet intellectual. Still, their influence was mutual, as each represented the necessary opposite.

Kurt Schwitters

Another Dadaist who extensively used assemblage in his works was Kurt Schwitters, one of the movement’s pioneers. For his assemblage works, Schwitters used the invented word Merz, the shortened German word Kommerz (meaning commerce). Such a term explained the origins of his works, as they were constructed from objects that anyone could buy in a regular store. Schwitters aimed to construct an aesthetical system based on the world of consumer goods, instruments, and packages. He used candy wrappers, buttons, coins, nails, and other discarded objects for his complex compositions.

As Schwitters continued his work, Merz developed into an all-encompassing philosophy that sometimes was used as a synonym for Dada. His most monumental work was the Merzbau, his family house in Hanover, transformed into a large-scale installation using pieces of refuse similar to his smaller assemblages. Unfortunately, Merzbau did not survive World War II and was destroyed during the Allied bombing raid in 1943.

Meret Oppenheim

Meret Oppenheim was a Swiss surrealist who was well-known for her assemblages. She constructed them from familiar objects bought in department stores, usually those associated with women and their socially acceptable activities. However, the results were often surprising and far removed from presupposed feminine gentleness and domestic bliss. A porcelain teacup wrapped in gazelle fur turned from chic to menacing and disquieting. A pair of white heels on a plate, tied up like a roasted chicken, evokes associations not with festive dinner but with bondage and fetish. Through assemblage, Oppenheim expressed the duality of symbols, their ambiguity, and the dark undertones of the social norms.

Vladimir Tatlin

Soviet Constructivist artist and architect Vladimir Tatlin never managed to receive any proper artistic education, yet he became one of the most influential modernist figures. Tatlin was Kazimir Malevich’s opponent who preached the supremacy of form and color. Tatlin, on the contrary, believed form must follow function, and the physical impression of the work defined its visual characteristics. According to a legend, he once knocked a chair out from under Malevich, stating he should “try and sit on geometry and color.”

Unlike most artists from the Russian Empire, Tatlin was able to travel to Europe and see French and German avant-garde art, including cubist pieces. After his European tour, he developed a concept of Counter-Reliefs, assemblages made from wood and metal. He saw them as examples of non-objectivity unrelated to any existing object, questioning the traditional rules of art. The aesthetical concept of counter-reliefs was solely the contrast of materials used for their construction.

Louise Nevelson

Louise Nevelson was a Ukrainian-born American artist associated with late-stage Cubism and Abstract Expressionism. Her most famous works are assemblages consisting of wooden boxes and compartments fixed together and colored in a single tone. These compartments often hide small sculptures, found objects, or artistic instruments. A single color that covers all these fragments distracts the viewer from the purposes of each and focuses their attention solely on forms and textures. Nevelson created a multi-sensory environment that completely immersed her audiences in the exploration of familiar things.

Robert Rauschenberg: The Master of Neo-Dadaist Assemblage

Robert Rauschenberg experimented with everyday objects he found on the streets of New York, including scrap metal, tires, soap dishes, and pieces of fabric. Rauschenberg bought some objects, like pieces of furniture of taxidermied animals, in second-hand stores.

The artist called his assemblages Combines and claimed they were supposed to bridge the gap between art and reality and also show the beauty found in everyday objects. His most famous Combine, called Monogram, featured a taxidermied goat. Rauschenberg reworked the original piece twice, dissatisfied with the relationship between used objects—the goat, his painting, and a tire. The final and most well-known version featured the goat placed at the center of a wooden platform that Rauschenberg covered with paintings and found objects.

The short period between the two world wars was a remarkable and tragic time that gave birth to equally remarkable and tragic characters who could not possibly emerge in any other era. Dorothy Wilde, known as Dolly, was one of them. She was the niece of the legendary writer Oscar Wilde. She believed that she was his lesbian reincarnation. Dolly inherited not only his looks but his talents as well, however, her self-destructive habits stood in her way.

Dolly Wilde Never Met Her Famous Uncle Oscar Wilde

Growing up with a celebrity in a family can be challenging. It is especially challenging, however, if your family member is a figure as intensively mythologized as Oscar Wilde, and you grow up with a face strikingly similar to that of him. Dorothy Wilde, known to friends as Dolly, was born three months after her famous uncle was imprisoned for homosexuality. Dolly never met him but grew up in his shadow which she adopted as her own. She was promised a brilliant literary career from her first days, yet she has never published a word, producing only a small collection of translated works.

She was the daughter of Oscar Wilde’s unfortunate younger brother Willie, who shared his wit and a penchant for substance abuse. Unlike his brother, Willie was incapable of managing his addictions and turned into a violent alcoholic instead of a celebrity writer. Oscar’s arrest and imprisonment put the family into dire financial straits, and, as an infant, Dolly was moved around relatives and different foster homes. She loathed discussing her childhood, only sharing one story that highlighted her habit of dipping sugar lumps into her mother’s perfume and consuming them.

Oscar was never seen as particularly handsome, yet Dolly, inheriting the same facial features, somehow was astonishingly beautiful. She claimed to be “more Oscar than Oscar himself.” She appeared dressed as him at costume parties and evoked the same signature Wilde wit and charm. She was the life of every party, yet had little life outside them.

She Drove an Ambulance During World War I

Dolly Wilde’s rise to social prominence began at the age of 19. As World War I unfolded, she ran away from her London home to become an ambulance driver in France. She lived with a group of other women drivers in a commune and seemed genuinely happy despite the chaos and bloodshed that was happening around her. Driving was perhaps the only thing that brought her pure joy with minimal destructive potential. However, friends noted that her post-war driving was pretty reckless and unnecessarily fast. She could never afford a car but kept borrowing vehicles from more affluent friends throughout her entire life.

At that time, she met another driver, an heiress of an oil company called Joe Carstairs. Carstairs was a remarkable character on her own. She was a speedboat racer, known as the fastest woman on water. With tattooed arms, short hair, and a penchant for men’s attire, she gained notoriety as a womanizer. Additionally, she was the owner of a private island, where she ruled and made her own laws. After the war, Dolly and Joe settled together in Paris.

Paris Was Fatal to Her

However, this relationship did not last very long. Dolly Wilde plunged into an active social life which was filled with irresponsible decisions. She had no permanent place of residence, carrying her suitcase from one hotel room to another and frequently staying at friends’ apartments. She was constantly late to events and forgetful when it came to her arrangements. Financially, she was irresponsible and uncontrollable. Having no real understanding of money or its value, she earned little by translating her French friends’ writings into English and she relied on donations from friends.

Still, despite their generosity, she was always broke, mainly due to her destructive addictions. Like her father and uncle, she was an alcoholic. However, Dolly did not limit herself to one substance, adding cocaine and heroin to the mix. One of Dolly’s friends said that Paris was fatal to her, with its bohemian atmosphere fuelling her addictions.

Dolly’s personal life was a subject of never-ending gossip. She enjoyed the attention of both sexes and boasted marriage proposals but preferred women. The long list of her lovers included artists, poets, and actresses. Among them was the Russian-American film director Alla Nazimova, who produced and starred in the adaptation of one of Oscar Wilde’s most famous novels: Salome.

F. Scott Fitzerald Hated Her

Dolly’s contemporaries often described her as someone who seemed more like a fictional character than a living functional human being. Indeed, her persona was charming, her beauty astonishing, and her life choices too absurd and doubtful to be real. Her drug-fueled social activity made her the center of almost any social gathering. Yet, most of her companions, being in similar states of intoxication, could hardly remember anything coherent after the party was over.

Dolly’s name appeared in the novels by her friends which described the lives of women of their social circles. These were educated, eccentric, and almost exclusively queer women. F. Scott Fitzgerald added her to his novel Tender is The Night as a lesbian seductress Vivienne Taube, picturing her as unpleasant and importunate. The reason for such a depiction lay in the apparent advances Dolly made toward Zelda Fitzgerald, the writer’s wife. According to a rumor, Fitzgerald already had a similar experience with another Wilde, Oscar, who flirted with him years ago, much to the writer’s annoyance.

Dolly’s Last Love and Spiraling Addiction

The last fourteen years of Dolly Wilde’s life passed in a tumultuous relationship with another celebrity, American writer Natalie Barney. In her relationships, Dolly was obsessive, bombarding subjects of her affection with dramatic and emotional letters. Natalie, on the contrary, was known among her many lovers as a cruel and dismissive master of manipulation, unable to commit to any form of monogamy. Parallel to Dolly, her partner was the famous American artist Romaine Brooks, a person of similarly notorious character. Although Brooks, too, did not limit herself to one partner, she was particularly annoyed by Dolly, who demanded extra attention with her frequent breakdowns and addictive behavior. In a particularly vile letter Brooks sent to her partner, she called Dolly a rat gnawing at the very foundation of their relationship.

Despite Natalie’s attempts to break off the affair, Dolly’s worsening condition could not allow her to leave for good. Faced with rejection, she wept and threatened to kill herself. In the early 1930s, her list of addictions expanded, with over-the-counter substances now accompanying alcohol, cocaine, and heroin. She survived at least four suicide attempts and often spiraled into days-long episodes of alcohol-induced delirium.

Soon, she was diagnosed with breast cancer but refused to undergo surgery, drowning her pain in heroin. The doctors said she needed control and discipline, but not a single one of her friends was willing to take on such responsibility. Even Natalie, tired and emotionally withdrawn, agreed only to send her money, which Dolly immediately spent on drugs.

Dolly Wilde: The Almost Famous Writer

By 1940, the untreated cancer spread to Dolly’s lungs and uterus. In pain, she made no attempts to curb her drug intake, with her friends often finding her unconscious in public spaces. Around her, the war was going on as the Nazis bombed London. On April 10, 1941, she was found dead in her rental apartment. The cause of Dolly’s death remains unknown, but it was most likely an overdose, either accidental or intentional.

Dolly Wilde’s chaotic childhood produced an even more chaotic and disorganized adult, unprepared for the realities of life. At the same time, the eternal presence of her remarkable uncle’s ghost was equally inspiring and misleading. The world’s expectations flattered her, but she did not find the strength to live up to them.

She received endless compliments on her literary talent but never published a single word. She envied her writer friends but made no attempts to write anything except short-form diary entries and elaborate overdramatic letters. It was even unclear if she actually had any literary talent or if it was simply expected of her to have it. In all her astonishing charm, she left no trace except for a few photographs and elaborate tales told by her friends and lovers. Those tales could never form the full image of the remarkable and tragic fate of Dolly Wilde.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art shared the first renderings of its transformative expansion plans. The new Tang Wing, projected to open in 2030, will house modern and contemporary art across five floors of galleries at the New York City landmark.

The Met Unveils $550 Million Vision for New Wing

The Met has been planning to create a new wing for modern and contemporary art since 2014. The museum recently raised enough money to officially move forward with the project following a $125 million donation from the new wing’s namesakes, Oscar L. Tang and H.M. Agnes Hsu-Tang. The new Tang Wing will span 126,000 feet and cost $550 million. It will house The Met’s collection of art from the 20th and 21st centuries across 70,000 square feet of new gallery space.

This week, The Met revealed a first look at the planned wing, designed by architect Frida Escobedo. Max Hollein, director of The Met, said in a statement, “As stewards of one of the most outstanding collections of 20th- and 21st-century art, The Met has a responsibility to New York City and the world to present the art of our time in exceptionally compelling, scholarly, and innovative displays that illuminate the rich—and at times surprising—connections that can be drawn across our collection of 5,000 years of art history. Escobedo’s elegant, contemporary design reflects not only an understanding of architectural history, materiality, and artistic expression but also a deep appreciation for The Met’s mission, collection, and visitors.”

Architect Frida Escobedo Designs 5-Story Wing

Frida Escobedo, an award-winning architect from Mexico, is the first woman to design a new wing for The Met in the museum’s 154-year history. The new five-story wing is designed to increase gallery space by nearly 50 percent without extending the existing building’s footprint or exceeding the height of the 1880 wing at the center of The Met. The museum’s vast collection, various architectural styles, and proximity to Central Park inspired Escobedo’s design, which will function as a work of art in its own right.

The Met’s new wing will improve accessibility and sustainability at the museum, adding dynamic indoor and outdoor spaces for exhibitions, as well as educational and community programming. It also supports The Met’s goal to globalize its modern and contemporary art galleries. Construction will begin in 2026, and sustainable design practices will be utilized to reduce energy consumption. The project will reportedly generate 4,000 union jobs, targeting 30 to 40 percent participation by minority and women-owned businesses.

New Wing Brings New Sculpture Garden to The Met

Another notable element of Escobedo’s new design for The Met is an expanded relocated sculpture garden. The museum’s current sculpture garden is famously located on its fifth-floor rooftop, which boasts panoramic views of Central Park. Each summer since 1998, the rooftop has hosted a single-artist exhibition by the likes of Jeff Koons and Ellsworth Kelly. It attracts scores of visitors during warm-weather months. Come 2030, The Met will debut a new sculpture garden on a terrace on the Tang Wing’s recessed fourth floor. Floor-to-ceiling windows will offer scenic views year-round, and a new cafe will open on the fifth floor.

After Fidel Castro ousted business-friendly military dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1958 and instituted a series of communist reforms in Cuba, he quickly made an enemy of the neighboring United States. Intent on bringing the revolutionary down, the US government spent the next several decades engaged in fruitless attempts to weaken, sabotage, and even assassinate Castro, who remained in power until 2006. These assassination schemes ranged from run-of-the-mill hitmen to convoluted conspiracies worthy of Wile E. Coyote.

The Olympics of Assassination Attempts

Executive Order 11905, signed by Gerald Ford in February 1976, formally banned US government agencies from assassinating foreign leaders. It states: “No employee of the United States government shall engage in, or conspire in, political assassination.” That political assassinations were technically legal before that may come as a surprise. The number of documented attempted political assassinations since then, including Muammar Gaddafi, Slobodan Milošević, and Saddam Hussein, suggests it hasn’t been particularly well-enforced—especially when it comes to the US’s premiere spy outfit, the Central Intelligence Agency.

The CIA is not known for its candor, so the most targeted individual in the organization’s history may never be known—but Fidel Castro, famed leader of the Cuban revolution or reviled communist dictator, depending on the audience, must occupy a top spot.

Arguably the greatest spy agency in the world acknowledged at least eight attempts to assassinate Castro during the Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson administrations in testimony to the US Senate—while the leader’s own spy chief, Fabian Escalante, claims the number was over 600, up to and including the Clinton administration. The true number of plots is no doubt somewhere in between. Castro himself once said, “If surviving assassination attempts were an Olympic event, I would win the gold medal.”

These bungled assassination attempts stand out for several reasons. First, of course, the sheer number, particularly those Castro’s spy chief claims were plotted long after the practice was “outlawed.” Second, the CIA’s impressive inability to actually kill Castro, who made it to age 90 and died of natural causes. And, perhaps most importantly, how truly absurd—even downright laughable—some of the assassination plots were, drawing a sharp contrast to the agency’s powerful and professional reputation. Here are the five most ridiculous ways the CIA conspired and failed to off Castro during the Cold War.

1. Lactose Intolerance

Castro had a well-known and slightly bizarre obsession with dairy and reportedly ate ice cream multiple times a day—so why not use it against him? Both sides have reported the details of this plot, and some of the finer points are disputed, but the basic outline remains the same. In 1961, or possibly 1963, the CIA churned up a scheme to poison one of Castro’s frozen desserts—whether an ice cream cone or a milkshake is a matter of contention—and got as far as transferring the poison, via the mafia, to a would-be assassin in the employ of a café in Havana that Castro frequented.

When the big moment arrived, however, physics reportedly intervened. The poison—possibly a vial or a pill, the details are murky—had been stashed in the freezer and, perhaps predictably, became frozen stuck. In trying to dislodge it, the employee broke and spilled it, rendering it useless. That Escalante believes this was the closest the CIA ever got to actually taking out Castro is perhaps the most laughable part of all.

2. Smoke Him Out

For all its intelligence, the CIA evidently could not learn much about Castro beyond what the general public already knew. Most of their plots, rather than using any secretive knowledge they had about the dictator, seemed instead to revolve around Castro’s most well-known habits—including his love of cigars. Two different cigar-related plots were reportedly dreamed up in apparent denial of the fact that someone as famous and controversial as Castro would surely have a variety of precautions in place to prevent his precious Cohibas from being tampered with.

The plot for which there is actual evidence involved a scheme to taint the dictator’s cigars with poison. In 1960, an official from the CIA’s Office of Medical Services was provided with a box of Castro’s favorite cigars and told to lace them with enough botulinum toxin that just putting one in his mouth would be fatal. Records show that the treated cigars were delivered to someone in 1961, but the trail stops there. No one knows what happened to them or whether they ever made it anywhere near the Cuban leader.

A less believable (if possible) but better-known plot involving exploding cigars has also been said to exist. In 1967, the Saturday Evening Post reported that during Castro’s United Nations visit the previous year, a CIA agent had approached the New York Police Department, providing security for the event, with a plan to slip Castro an exploding cigar. No other evidence for this fiery plot exists, and researchers have since suggested it was simply “tabloid fodder” or even a false flag designed to distract the press from the CIA’s true (yet equally absurd) plans.

3. Under the Sea

When he wasn’t busy turning Cuba from a military dictatorship into a communist dictatorship, Castro enjoyed relaxing under the sea, taking in the beauty of Cuba’s ocean water from a diving suit. The CIA was having none of that and devised several plans to assassinate the leader as he tried to wind down beneath the waves.

A more well-known plot involved selecting a particularly noteworthy seashell, rigging it with explosives, and planting it where Castro was sure to stumble upon it during one of his dives. Once he picked it up—kaboom! More than just a vague notion, officials actually bought (and presumably read) two books on Caribbean mollusks for further research. The plan was discarded as impractical when the CIA determined there was no shell, both large enough to contain the necessary volume of explosives and spectacular enough to guarantee Castro’s attention.

Not willing to abandon the surefire “scuba-related accident” theme, a less well-known CIA brainstorming session resulted in an even more puzzling game plan: gifting the dictator a diving suit dripping with disease. The CIA’s zany schemes division treated a breathing apparatus with tuberculosis and then dusted an accompanying suit with a fungus that causes mycetoma, a serious infection that can lead to amputations if left untreated.

How, exactly, the suit could have been safely transported without infecting anyone in its vicinity was apparently not important enough to come up in any testimony, but it was all for naught. The individual the CIA had determined would deliver the suit, James Donovan, a lawyer involved in negotiations to free Bay of Pigs prisoners, was tipped off that there may be an attempt to tamper with a suit he had already purchased. Donovan did ultimately gift Castro a non-lethal dive suit—and secure the release of over 1,000 prisoners.

4. Crowdsourcing

The CIA wasn’t above outsourcing the unpleasant task of taking out the Cuban dictator—their earliest schemes famously involved paying off members of the mafia (angered by Castro having shut down their Cuban casinos) to do the deed. Efforts to work with the disgruntled Cuban diaspora who had set up camp in Florida after the revolution were also documented.

Perhaps frustrated by their seemingly inexhaustible collection of foiled plots, senior officials in the Kennedy administration floated the idea of offering cash rewards to Cubans for killing members of Castro’s regime and communist party operatives, as well as the big man himself. Operation Bounty proposed rewards of up to $1,000,000 for such targeted attacks, which would be advertised via leaflets dropped over the country. To collect, all they had to do was present proof of death, the deceased’s party membership card, and, of course, the leaflet. Who these items would have been presented to and how seems like a reasonable question.

So, how much would you rake in if you took down Castro himself? A measly $0.02. According to Senate testimony from Edward Landsdale, who held a number of roles with the Department of Defense during the Kennedy Administration, the puny reward was proposed as a way “to denigrate … Castro in the eyes of the Cuban population.” Unsure that the scheme would actually work, the plan also included dispatching agents to kidnap some of the lower-level targets themselves to convince the locals their neighbors were cooperating in secret while sowing distrust within the nation’s communist party. Like many of the CIA’s half-baked ideas, the operation was never launched.

5. Jesus Saves

Save the best for last—if “best” means “most absurd.” This last plot is so outlandish that, if it weren’t for the transcript of actual Senate testimony from a CIA agent attesting to its existence, it likely would have gone down in history as an urban legend. And while there’s no evidence that any attempt was ever made to carry out the preposterous plan, the details in that testimony suggest it was more than just a fleeting thought.

The brilliant idea: convince the very Catholic Cuban populace that Castro was the Antichrist and then fake the second coming of Jesus to prompt Cubans to rise up and overthrow (and, presumably, kill—it’s the Antichrist, after all) him.

Yes, really.

According to CIA agent Thomas A Parrot’s testimony to the Church Committee, it was Lansdale (again) who concocted this particular scheme. Agents would be enlisted to spread the word around Cuba about Castro being the Antichrist “and then on whatever date it was, that there would be a manifestation of this thing. And at that time—this is absolutely true—and at that time there would be an American submarine which would surface just over the horizon off of Cuba and send up some starshells. And this would be the manifestation of the Second Coming and Castro would be overthrown…”

Details about how, exactly, agents thought they would manage to persuade Cubans that Castro was the Antichrist or how rockets would convince them of Jesus’s imminent return are disappointingly absent from the testimony. Lansdale himself, unsurprisingly, denied any such plot ever existed.

It’s worth noting that when not cobbling together outlandish schemes to assassinate their Cuban nemesis, the CIA was also busy plotting hare-brained antics designed to undermine and humiliate him, hoping to goad the Cuban public into overthrowing him—including slipping him LSD before a televised speech and lacing his boots with poison designed to make his signature beard fall out—which also produced a zero percent success rate. If nothing else, these abject failures are perhaps something to keep in mind the next time someone alleges the existence of a widespread government conspiracy.

From ancient times to the modern era, notable women have challenged traditional gender norms in philosophy and left a lasting impact in many branches of philosophy—even though philosophy has historically been male-dominated. These exceptional thinkers have helped shape philosophical discourse with fresh perspectives and profound insights. However, they don’t always get the recognition they deserve. So, who are these amazing women?

1. Hypatia of Alexandria

Hypatia of Alexandria is a name that cannot be overlooked when discussing philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy. Daughter of Theon of Alexandria—himself an important philosopher and mathematician—Hypatia was destined for greatness from birth. Living up to expectations (and more), she taught Plato and Aristotle along with math and astronomy at her father’s famous school, the Museum. After his death, she took his place at the head of the school.

The scale and quality of Hypatia’s works are impressive. One creation, her commentary on Diophantus’s Arithmetic, includes 100-plus algebra problems solved by her alone. Her intellect and influence during this period are further demonstrated by her writings on Apollonius of Perga’s conic sections, and an astronomical work called the Astronomical Canon, which unfortunately has not survived.

Her philosophy drew heavily from Plotinus and focused on seeking a mystical union with the divine. This perspective bred religious tolerance at the school and drew students from throughout the ancient world’s many different belief systems. Hypatia didn’t just instruct future officials and bishops. She also helped build a culture of intellectual curiosity and tolerance.

Hypatia was important enough that rulers like the prefect Orestes listened to what she said. Her impact went beyond academia, too. But Hypatia’s progressive beliefs put her at odds with the new bishop Cyril—so much so that there was eventually a deadly conflict between them in which she was accused of witchcraft.

Though her life ended tragically, people haven’t forgotten or diminished what an extraordinary female philosopher she was: someone who produced significant works and taught others how to think for themselves—and think big!

2. Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia

Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia was an important person in the history of education and philosophy. She was the first woman to receive a PhD, and she was awarded hers in 1678 from the University of Padua in Italy. There, she demonstrated her brilliance by defending a doctoral dissertation she had written herself.

But Piscopia’s amazing educational milestones don’t stop there. She also had an incredible breadth of knowledge in many other subjects such as math—and spoke seven languages fluently! These included Latin and Greek (considered essential for all university students back then), French, Spanish, Hebrew, and even Arabic.

In fact, people sometimes referred to her as “The Seven-Language Oracle” because they were so impressed by both her exceptional ability to learn languages quickly and how well she understood these different cultures when speaking them.

Assisting the community intellectually and earning respect was important to Piscopia. In 1670, she became president of the Venetian society Accademia dei Pacifici, showing that she was influential in scientific discussions even then. Membership in many scientific societies proved how much she cared about learning and teaching others. It also made her well-respected among other thinkers of the time.

Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia means more than someone who got a special degree long ago. She has become a symbol for women breaking barriers in education and wanting to know everything they possibly can—not just in philosophy but in any subject! Because of this, she has inspired generations upon generations of females, both within and outside this field!

3. Anne Conway

Anne Conway is a significant figure in philosophy because of her original ideas as a rationalist and because she is associated with the Cambridge Platonists. These philosophers blended Christianity with Platonism.

Conway was not allowed to study at university because she was a woman. Still, she overcame this by corresponding with professors at Cambridge University and teaching herself philosophy to a high level.

We mainly know about Conway’s philosophy from The Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy. She did not put her name on it; it was published after she died in 1690. In this work, she criticizes Descartes, Hobbes, and Spinoza—three important philosophers from her time—while presenting what is unique about her thinking: spiritual monism.

This doctrine proposes that everything that exists is both unified and spiritual, something that distinguishes her from other 17th-century thinkers, who were more likely to be dualists or materialists.

It’s also worth noting Conway’s exploration of monads—an idea she came up with independently from Leibniz but which anticipates his work and may have influenced him. This suggests Conway had a broader impact on the development of ideas than even those working in her own milieu would have realized.

Conway’s boldness and originality make her an extraordinary philosopher who broke new metaphysical ground by pushing boundaries.

4. Hildegard von Bingen

Hildegard von Bingen, born in 1098, was an abbess, writer, philosopher, and composer who transcended the confines of her Benedictine convent to become one of the most influential figures in Europe. A polymath who studied music, medicine, natural science, and philosophy—among countless other subjects—Hildegard was a profound and versatile thinker.

Her philosophical works include Scivias (Know the Ways of the Lord) and Liber Subtilitatum Diversarum Naturarum Creaturarum (Book of the Subtleties of Different Natural Things). In these texts, she explored humanity’s relationship with God in groundbreaking ways.

The ecclesiastical endorsement came for her work, too: St Bernard of Clairvaux supported Hildegard, as did Pope Eugene III, both men attesting to her spiritual authority and intellect.

In addition, Hildegard’s invention of the Lingua Ignota, one of the earliest recorded constructed languages, demonstrates her creativity and intellect. She was also an acclaimed musician. Her compositions continue to inspire people who perform sacred music and those involved in classical music.

Hildegard was made a saint and a Doctor of the Church. Her ideas show that she looked at things as a whole person would, combining faith and natural science. Because she did so many important things in different fields, she is seen as someone original and excellent in philosophy who broke new ground—a pioneer!

5. Émilie du Châtelet

Emily du Châtelet is an important figure in the Enlightenment. She translated Isaac Newton’s revolutionary work Principia Mathematica for French speakers, but she did much more than that. Du Châtelet also added her own commentary, helping make Newton’s ideas better known and discussed across Europe.

Du Châtelet explored the philosophical ideas behind natural philosophy (the science of matter and energy) very deeply. She became an important voice in debates about these subjects at that time.

In fact, she published critiques of Cartesian physics (a system for explaining how things move through space based on René Descartes’s ideas) and other works questioning existing theories.

In Foundations of Physics, for example, Du Châtelet proposed her new way of looking at this branch of knowledge. It’s principles or rules we can trust when saying we know something.

Du Châtelet was not only interested in natural philosophy; she also thought about ethics and theology. She could engage with important issues because she had many different talents. Du Châtelet played a major part in Enlightenment thinking because she always used the experimental method, even when other philosophers did not.

She wasn’t just a great female philosopher. Her ideas have had an influence on science and philosophy that lasts to this day. Her work had such an impact because she immersed herself deeply in the scientific and philosophical arguments around her.

6. Harriet Taylor Mill

Harriet Taylor Mill is another important person in philosophy, especially feminist philosophy and liberal political theory. Even though she didn’t publish much under her own name, her ideas influenced her husband, John Stuart Mill, a lot—he was one of the most important philosophers of the 1800s.

One essay that shows how Harriet Taylor Mill thought for herself is The Enfranchisement of Women. In this work from 1851, she boldly argues for women’s rights. It also helped inspire John Stuart Mill’s great book, The Subjection of Women, from 1869. Together, these two thinkers broke lots of new ground, and their writing still shapes progressive thought about freedom and equality today.

Harriet Taylor Mill played a significant role in the creation of On Liberty, going beyond merely inspiring it. The foundational text for liberal philosophy was written with her input and ideas about personal freedoms and social rights—so much so that the book is dedicated to her.

Some contemporary academics believe Harriet Taylor Mill should be listed as an author alongside her husband. They argue that her thoughts helped shape and refine what he wanted to say. Without her contribution, the work would have been less powerful or original.

Recognizing her importance to discussions about autonomy and fairness can help us appreciate Harriet Taylor Mill as an exceptional female philosopher. Her ideas still resonate today, not least in debates about feminism and how best to create a just society.

7. Hannah Arendt

Hannah Arendt, born in Germany in 1906, was a significant philosopher of the 1900s. She examined concepts like politics, control, and what it is to be human—topics that were influenced by her Jewish background as Nazism took hold in Germany.

Arendt is best known for thinking deeply about totalitarianism (extreme and centralized political power), how governments get authority over people—and what those people’s freedoms consist of. These ideas run through works such as The Origins of Totalitarianism and The Human Condition, making them particularly famous texts by her.

Arendt is best known for her analysis of Adolf Eichmann’s trial, during which she introduced the phrase “the banality of evil.” This idea upended existing thinking about attributing moral responsibility and comprehending wickedness when bureaucracies perpetuate it. It also had a long-lasting influence outside academia, in politics and philosophy.

Cutting across history, philosophy, and political science, her work speaks to people grappling with 21st-century challenges at the heart of liberal democracies. Arendt’s complex investigation into what it is to be human, her fierce criticism of totalitarianism, and her timeless thoughts on the nature of political action and liberty mean that she continues to have an impact today.

8. Anne Dufourmantelle

Anne Dufourmantelle, a French philosopher and psychoanalyst, is known for her deep exploration into the philosophy of risk, which she lays out in her book In Praise of Risk (Éloge du risque).

Dufourmantelle’s philosophy investigates what risk-taking does to humans. She argues that people should want to take risks because there is so much unknown—and potentially good—out there.

According to Dufourmantelle, we need to be ready for life’s risks and able to cope with them, too. If we face them with bravery and smart thinking, we can do better than just surviving. We might even thrive from dealing with difficulty or uncertainty head-on.

In her work, Dufourmantelle goes beyond an examination of risk itself. She also considers how the desire for security can be paradoxical. While we may want to be safe, she argues that this can result in emptiness or stasis because it is precisely unpredictability—and the need to constantly adjust to it—that gives life its dynamism.

“Living is taking risks”: this phrase sums up her philosophy that vital activity implies always changing and becoming different through the problems it confronts. Dufourmantelle’s contribution to philosophy reaches further than academic debate alone: she makes a deep observation about what it is like to be human.

So, What’s the Contribution of Women to Philosophy?

Even though philosophy has long been male-dominated, women have profoundly impacted the field—so much so that their ideas often shape how we think about society and even science.

Their contributions to political theory and ethics alone would be significant. However, women have also rethought fundamental questions in metaphysics (the study of existence) and the philosophy of science itself.

Because established thinking can limit fresh thought, any discipline benefits from multiple perspectives. Including those gleaned by questioning received wisdom—as these thinkers often do.

The upshot is not only that conversation in these areas has grown richer and more nuanced as a result. The work of women philosophers equips future generations with tools to keep exploring: they raise novel ideas worth pondering further.

The Third Council of Constantinople was the sixth of the seven Ecumenical Councils of the early Christian church. The Third Council was held in 680-681 CE in the City of Constantinople, like several previous councils. It was called upon by Emperor Constantine to question whether Jesus Christ had one will (called Monothelitism) or two (known as Dyothelitism).

What Happened Before the Third Council of Constantinople?

The five previous ecumenical councils each dealt with various issues surrounding the person and nature of Jesus Christ. The humanity and divinity of Jesus, as well as the extent of His humanity and divinity, were all issues at hand to one level or another in each of the preceding councils. While most of those issues had been resolved, particularly for Western Christianity, several controversies still waxed and waned in Eastern Christianity over the first few hundred years since the times of the New Testament.

What Issues Were Discussed at the Third Council of Constantinople?

Two specific issues had arisen before the Third Council. One issue was the idea of monoenergism, the idea that Jesus had one “energy,” a vague term similar to will or motivation. Dyoenergism is the concept that He had a separate human and divine “energy.”  The second issue was the concept of Monothelitism, or the idea that Jesus only had a single divine will (more clearly defined that in monoenergism), rather than dyothelitism, the idea that He had two wills, divine and human. The general problem with the “mono” positions their opponents held was that they implicitly have a denial of the human nature of Jesus, and were therefore heterodox.

The two issue of monoenergism and Monothelitism were wrapped in some political maneuverings and issues regarding the Eastern Byzantine Empire. Emperor Heraclius had attempted to resolve the matter by promoting some vague language he would hope would be acceptable to both sides of the debate, but only succeeded in finding rejection by both sides. 

His successor, Constans II, actually attempted to outlaw the discussion of the issues to no success as well. Pope Martin I and Maximus the Confessor held the Lateran Council of 649 in Rome to condemn the “mono” beliefs, and were arrested by Constans for holding the council without his authority. Constantine IV finally decided to settle the issue, having dealt with the 678 Muslim siege of Constantinople and desired some form of reconciliation between the Eastern and Western Churches.

What Happened at the Third Council of Constantinople?

The Third Council, though preceded throughout other parts of the empire by other meetings, only had 37 Bishops and a few other church leaders in attendance due to the continuing Muslim conquests and wars in the Eastern part of the empire. Eventually, 151 Bishops were able to attend by the time the council was concluded.

Pope Agatho had sent a delegation with a letter that endorsed the dyothelitistic and dyoenergistic views, a position that was upheld at the council. The “mono” views were condemned, as well as several specific figures who supported them, including Pope Honorius I, who had died in 638.

Two Monothelite supporters, George of Constantinople and Macarius of Antioch, attempted to prove from the writings on the church Fathers that their position was correct. However, their opponents were able to prove that they were either misusing the materials, or had deliberately misstated what the church Fathers wrote. George recanted his position, but Macarius held to his and was condemned and deposed.

Did Someone Attempt to Resurrect a Dead Man at the Council?

Polychronius, a supporter of Macarius, believed so strongly in their position that he sought to prove it by raising someone from the dead.  In the Prosphoneticus to the Emperor – the report of the council’s findings – it was written:

“Likewise also that old man Polychronius, with an infantile intelligence, who promised he would raise the dead and who when they did not rise, was laughed at…”

What Was the Result of the Council?

The council resulted in a further defining of the orthodox beliefs regarding the hypostatic union – the combination of the human and divine will in Jesus Christ. While some further division existed with the Eastern churches over the terminology, previous councils, particularly the Council of Chalcedon, had resulted in greater divisions that had not yet healed.

Collage and assemblage are two techniques for creating artworks from existing pieces. Collages usually feature flat fragments of paper, while assemblages include three-dimensional pieces. Collages became popular artistic techniques among modern artists who sought new forms of expressive methods. Popularized by Cubists, collage and assemblage were soon adopted by other art movements. Here’s everything you need to know about collage art techniques.

Collage: The Underrated Artistic Technique

Usually, we associate collage with something found in family photo albums, social media feeds, or diaries. Most arts and crafts admirers see it as something sentimental but not entirely artistic, as if the act of rearranging pre-made pieces seems just as creative as assembling a factory-produced jigsaw puzzle. However, collage has a long history as a proper artistic medium in its own right.

The earliest occurrences of collage art can be traced back to the invention and the start of the widespread use of paper. Elements of collage were used in Japanese and Chinese calligraphy and poetry. In Western culture, collage-making existed only as a popular hobby for a long time. Middle-class Europeans arranged postcards, drawings, and later photographs in aesthetically pleasing ways, creating comic strips, caricatures, and narratives.

The attitude towards collage radically changed in the 20th century. Modernist artists started to explore new expressive forms and techniques, looking to revive traditional art that seemed dated and unfit for the new era. Collage was one such technique, eagerly adopted by many art groups and movements.

In its simplest explanation, collage is an arrangement of cut-out pieces and fragments that are glued together to create an entirely new and often unexpected composition. For decades, artists used their own drawings, photographs, newspaper clippings, and other fragments for collages. From the strictly visual technique, collage evolved into an artistic principle, sometimes applied to music, film, and writing.

Assemblage

Assemblage is an offshoot of collage. The boundaries between the two techniques are rather blurry, which often leads to confusion. Generally speaking, collages are two-dimensional artworks, while assemblages are three-dimensional. Apart from clippings and drawings, assemblages often incorporate found objects—elements not manufactured by an artist but appropriated by them. Assemblage started from collages with inclusions of three-dimensional elements, such as Pablo Picasso’s still life with a chair seat attached to the canvas. Little by little, the concept developed into large-scale complex constructions from numerous components.

Cubism

The art movement of Cubism was the first one that adopted collage and assemblage as legitimate and widespread artistic techniques in combination with painting. Inspired by African art and the world of Paul Cezanne, Cubist painters challenged traditional ways of rendering space and objects, searching for new forms of expression. They simplified the world into geometric forms and then assembled it piece by piece, painting their scenes from multiple angles and in multiple states at once

The adoption of collage was both an aesthetic and intellectual choice. From the aesthetic point of view, collage inclusions created complex visual rhythm and added depth to otherwise strict and limited color and texture palettes of Cubism. Moreover, Cubist paintings were usually the results of deep analytical work and were sometimes hard to read or compare with objective reality. Collage and assemblage elements in such works acted as a bridge between the painted and the real, extending pictorial space right into the viewer’s realm.

As noted by art historians, Cubist subject matter and recurring symbols reflected the gender and class conventions of the society the artists functioned in. The two principal types of Cubist painting were still lifes on bar and cafe tables (almost exclusively male spaces) or portraits of women—particularly, artists’ lovers or sex workers. Moreover, their use of collages often highlighted and deliberately relied on gender differentiation and norms. For instance, Spanish Cubist Juan Gris in his collage Flowers arranged objects in a way that suggested a date or a similar amorous encounter. The flower bouquet indicated the presence of a woman behind the scenes and the clay pipe the presence of a man. In the absence of human figures, their belongings, as well as the coffee and wine they share at the table, tell the story of their characters and interactions.

Dada

Dada art was a phenomenon even more radical and complex than Cubism. Dadaism was born as a protest against World War I, its traumas and horrors. Mass-scale destruction accompanied by mustard gas attacks, explosives and artillery, trench warfare, and severe disfiguring wounds showed the side of human creativity and ingenuity that was largely ignored in previous centuries. As it turned out, humans were so good at and enthusiastic about murdering each other that no limits of common sense and compassion could stop them. Traditional pre-war art that talked about harmony, order, and sophistication proved to be useless and dysfunctional, unable to either prevent the suffering or express it.

Dada was born in neutral Switzerland which was surrounded by a raging war and was a safe haven for many artists who wished to avoid the bloodshed. Soon, they started to create their own visual art and poetry that was deliberately nonsensical and laid outside of traditional art boundaries. Their poems were incoherent screams performed by a convulsing poet, lists of newspaper headlines arranged in random order, or simply strange roaring and clicking sounds. Dada was attacking the public’s common sense and their basic understanding of art and performance. Logic, harmony, and good taste were ridiculed as absurd old fashions.

If Cubist artists used collage and assemblage as additions to painting, Dada artists frequently entirely substituted paint with collaged images. Collage was their way of rearranging current reality and giving it a new form, often dictated by chance rather than a conscious artistic decision. German Dadaist Kurt Schwitters compiled his compositions from magazine images, candy wrappers, flyers, and other objects often categorized as trash.

Surrealism

Dada and Surrealism had a significant theoretical divide between them but nonetheless attracted similar crowds. By the 1930s, many maturing and developing Dada artists moved to Surrealism. Instead of exploring nonsense, they now came to explore the subconscious, giving sense to the strangest and darkest silhouettes lingering in their minds. The idea of bringing together unrelated pieces into a single whole was at the center of the Surrealist mind and started with a popular salon game known as Exquisite Corpse.

The first player took a sheet of paper and started either writing a sentence or drawing part of the image. Then, they folded the sheet in a way that would conceal their creation and passed it to the next player so they could continue the sentence or the drawing. After several rounds, the players unfolded the sheet to find an odd construction of words and images that were unrelated to each other but united as a whole.

One of the former Dadaists turned Surrealist was German artist Max Ernst. In his long career, Ernst worked in a variety of mediums and techniques, yet his collages were particularly notable. Instead of using contemporary popular culture sources like newspapers and magazines, Ernst dived deep into Victorian Gothic novels, 19th-century engravings, posters, and illustrations. The result was the dark and unsettling series of collages that featured hybrid human-animal creatures. These collages were violent yet strangely mesmerizing hallucinations, snapshots of horror dreams messing with real-life memories and experiences.

Photomontage: The Surrealist Extension of Collage

Photography as an artistic medium was particularly popular among Surrealist women artists, who eagerly mastered the relatively new technology. Instead of aiming to represent objective reality, they appreciated the camera’s expressive possibilities, which could build an entirely new realm from familiar pieces. The earliest artistic experiments with photomontage are often attributed to Dada artist Hannah Hoch, who created photo collages and montages that were highly politicized and usually commented upon the Weimar-era gender roles and expectations.

Surrealist photographer Dora Maar mastered the art of manipulating the camera and the finished images. In her works, hands crawl out of mollusk shells, women hide behind intricate spider webs, and space seems both infinite and limited. Although underappreciated as an artistic creation in her time, Dora Maar’s Surrealist work was successfully sold as a commercial product and was published in fashion magazines of the time.

Pop Art & Collages

After World War II, collage techniques made a surprising comeback in the movement of Pop art. Pop art relied on images from consumer culture, advertisements, and popular media products. It was an opposite reaction to the prevalence of abstract art on the market that both celebrated and ridiculed capitalist consumption and its attributes. Billboards, TV commercials, shop displays, and magazine features became integral parts of the contemporary landscape. Pop artists reflected this landscape in their works, often reconstructing this imaginary realm of affluence and endless consumption through collage.

One of the movement’s most iconic works, Just What Is It That Makes Today’s Homes So Different, So Appealing? consists of figures cut out of American magazines, including images of bodybuilders, perfect fashionable living rooms, and various objects branded with popular logos. Human beings on the collage exist as commodities, representing the picture-perfect lifestyle that is seemingly available for purchase.

Is there life after death? Humans have been intrigued by this question for centuries. While science can try to answer it based on evidence alone, philosophy takes a different approach, delving into metaphysics. Some thinkers have argued that death marks the end of consciousness itself. Others have suggested that although our individual minds may cease to exist, somehow or other, we might carry on being part of something larger than ourselves. In this article, we will take the philosophical route. So, what are famous philosophers saying about life after death?

Plato: The Immortality of the Soul

Plato presents an interesting viewpoint on what happens after we die—suggesting the soul’s journey stretches far beyond earthly life. Picture a place where everything is perfect and pure, somewhere our souls long to return to once they’ve finished with our bodies: this is Plato’s world of forms.

In his dialogue Phaedo, Plato takes us through Socrates’ last moments as if we’re right there with him. The philosopher faces death in a calm and fascinating way, talking about whether or not our souls live on.

Using vivid examples, Socrates makes it clear he thinks dying isn’t something bad that happens to you at the end of your life—like punishment for a crime you didn’t commit. Instead, he says (to put it simply) that it’s like being released from prison because now your soul can return to where it belongs.

Plato’s philosophy revolutionizes our perception of life itself. It calls on us to consider how both living and dying fit into a larger scheme. Instead of simply ceasing to exist once we die, Plato suggests that our souls might wake up to something even more real—and spectacular—than anything we’ve experienced before.

For Plato, death isn’t an occasion for dread; it’s a hopeful step towards a higher existence. This view asks us to think differently about individual deaths and consider the sweep of human mortality: Can looking beyond our lives as mortals help reveal truths about goodness and beauty that never fade?

Aristotle: The Soul as the Form of the Body

Contrary to his teacher Plato, Aristotle had a practical view of life after death. Rather than believing that the soul moves from one realm into another at its demise like an independent voyager, he considered the soul to be bound up with the physical body.

In his book De Anima (On the Soul), which examines living things’ essence and their functions, Aristotle argues that if you think about what happens to a soul after it leaves its “home” (the body) behind, then you haven’t grasped what souls are for or what they do. They give bodies vital activities—they make them living things.

To put it another way, according to Aristotle’s belief system​, anything that has a function in form cannot exist separate from matter. You wouldn’t speak of a song having somewhere else to go when it’s not being sung by anybody—because songs don’t exist apart from singers! Nor does choreography have meaning without dancers.

As a result, Aristotle moves away from considering what might happen after we die to concentrate on how we can make the best of our lives right now. Instead of seeing existence as a preparation for an unknown next stage, he wants us to achieve eudaimonia—usually translated as “flourishing”—by exercising reason and practicing virtue in this life.

Aristotle’s ideas mean that we should embrace the present moment. We should try to live ethically and with purpose because that way, we will be fulfilling our highest potential. Because who knows whether there is any further stage beyond death, and if so, what it may be like?

Epicurus: Death is Nothing to Us

Epicurus, an advocate for leading a tranquil life, had a refreshingly simple take on what happens after we die: don’t worry about it. According to Epicurus, everything we experience—whether good things like joy or bad things like pain—comes from our ability to feel them.

But once we’re dead, we can’t feel anything at all because that capacity has gone away. So there’s nothing scary about being dead; it’s not like there’s something unpleasant happening to you, Epicurus would say.

Think about the perfect summer day when you’re enjoying yourself so much that you forget all your worries in the warm sun or while eating ice cream with friends. In moments like these, which Epicurus thought people should aim for as much as possible (as long as they didn’t cause pain to others), he might argue that death shouldn’t preoccupy us.

Epicurus taught that we should seek a life of simple pleasures, friendship, and peace of mind—not fraught hours pondering what happens after death or worrying about not existing. Why care about an afterlife when it’s unknowable? Or stress out over nonexistence after we die?

Instead, Epicurus said to enjoy the feelings and experiences life provides—creating a happy existence for ourselves that leaves no room for dread. In this way, we can live well and also take away death’s ability to scare us because if it can’t harm our enjoyment of life itself, then what is there to be afraid of?

The Buddhist Perspective: Reincarnation and Nirvana

In Buddhism, life after death is understood in terms of reincarnation and Nirvana, which presents a religious and cyclical idea of life. Instead of thinking about life as a one-off journey, Buddhism teaches that individuals are born again and again once they die—this endless cycle is called samsara.

Central to samsara is karma, the moral law of cause and effect. Simply put, what you do affects what happens when you are reborn. If your actions are good, you’ll return in a better form next time; if they’re bad, you can expect something less pleasant.

To grasp this concept better, picture autumn leaves falling into a river. They drift along for ages before finally breaking down. Then, bits of them help nourish new plants. The leaf’s journey mirrors the Buddhist cycle of samsara: each life presents an opportunity for personal growth and purification with the aim (goal) of reaching—or at least getting closer to—ultimate happiness: Nirvana.

For example, imagine someone accumulating good karma through living mindfully and compassionately. This person isn’t just trying to get a better position in their next life—they’re actually on track to reach Nirvana, a state of profound peace and liberation from all suffering. To get there, they’ll need to practice ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom (which can help purify their mind enough to break free from samsara’s cycle of rebirth).

In Buddhism, we see a different take on life after death. Instead of aiming for some final destination, it’s more about continuing along a path that leads to moral and spiritual growth—ultimately culminating in release from the whole business of dying and being born again.

St. Thomas Aquinas: Christian Theology of the Afterlife

St. Thomas Aquinas introduced a Christian perspective on life after death that combines faith with reason. In his important theological work Summa Theologica, Aquinas explored subjects such as the soul’s nature, how God judges us, and what will happen to people once they have died if their soul is found separate from their body.

Aquinas claims that each individual soul is immortal; God creates it directly, and it cannot die when the person does. After death, each soul will undergo divine judgment.

To understand this better, imagine a courtroom—but one where God’s laws rather than human ones determine what is right and wrong. In this court, everything about you—every choice you made (good or bad), every kind or cruel thing you did—is completely open for inspection by an all-knowing Judge: God himself.

Those souls whose lives demonstrated love, kindness (according to the commandments of God), fidelity—as well as compassion for others—will find themselves welcomed into heaven.

On the flip side, those who don’t follow God’s laws and turn their backs on His love will face something else entirely: damnation. According to Aquinas, hell is what you deserve if your life is stained by unrepentant sin—a state of being separated from God and everything good for all eternity. It’s a sharp reminder of how important our moral choices are.

Aquinas offers an ordered view of what happens after we die—one where our souls continue on and our actions from earthly life still matter morally. By combining Christian teaching and ideas from philosophy, Aquinas encourages people to live virtuous lives because they believe it’s right while holding out for divine justice that brings eternal rest.

Søren Kierkegaard: Existential Perspectives on Death and the Afterlife

Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard takes a fascinating approach to death and the afterlife in his existentialist philosophy. Unlike many before him, Kierkegaard does not present a systematic theological or philosophical system. Instead, he focuses on what it means for individuals to exist—with freedom and responsibility.

According to Kierkegaard, death causes us to think deeply because at that point, we will be confronted with how authentic our lives have been. Kierkegaard doesn’t say outright what happens when we die.

Instead, he challenges us to consider both the certainty of death and the unknowns afterward. Rather than avoid thinking about or feeling anxious about this situation, he suggests embracing thoughts and feelings as natural parts of life, which can provide people with direction and purpose.

Imagine an artist who knows they will die soon, creating art not to be remembered but because it is a true expression of themselves. Kierkegaard would say this shows how someone can live passionately, even when aware of death’s presence.

Kierkegaard doesn’t use the idea of death or an afterlife to comfort us or tell us what to do next. Instead, he leaves us with a question: How do we live so that we always become who we really are? And how do we make these choices fully aware that we only have limited time left—and that nobody else can choose for us?

So, Is There a Life After Death?

The mystery surrounding what happens after we die has fascinated people for centuries and led to many theories. In his writings, Plato describes how the soul can strive for perfection in another realm. Aristotle, however, believed that when we die, our souls die too.

Epicurus was one of several ancient philosophers who argued that we should not fear death because once it arrives, there will be no sensations—good or bad. Buddhism introduced the idea of cyclical rebirth until reaching Nirvana (a transcendent state free from suffering), while Thomas Aquinas outlined a system where one’s life is judged, and one either goes to heaven or hell.

All these perspectives offer potentially helpful ways to think about post-death existence, but none can be proven. They are available as food for thought rather than gospel truth. We don’t know if there is life after death. But thinking hard about this subject could still be important. It could affect how we live our lives!

For millions of Christmas lovers annually, visits to European Christmas markets are at the top of their holiday vacation lists. Early each autumn, social media starts to fill with influencers offering their recommendations for the best markets to visit, spilling the secrets of who has the best glühwein mugs or gingerbread biscuits. Some enthusiasts plan entire vacations around visiting as many markets as possible. From Dresden to Dubrovnik, these oases of warmth and light are thronged with cheerful locals and tourists alike, sampling delicious holiday snacks and picking up special gifts for their family and friends.

Europe’s Christmas Markets

The tradition of the European Christmas market has its roots in Germany and Austria during the late Middle Ages, so many of the thousands of markets across Europe will carry more than a hint of that heritage in their cozy wooden huts and vats of warming glühwein. However, the European continent is no monolith: many other countries have their own long-held traditions and put their own special twists on the year’s most glittering season.

Classic markets like the ones in Dresden, Vienna, Aachen, and Strasbourg are always worth a visit. But for those looking for something a little different, we’ve gathered together a list of some perhaps underrated Christmas markets across Europe that deserve to move up to the top of any holiday traveler’s must-see lists.

1. Bolzano, Italy

Christmas markets are something of a new phenomenon in Italy, where Bolzano’s Mercatino di Natale reigns supreme as the country’s oldest—having been established in 1991—and its largest.

South Tyrol’s capital city has nestled its sparkling market amongst the colorful 19th-century buildings of the Piazza Walther in Bolzano’s old town. It is actually a collection of markets: the central Christmas market takes up the main area of the old town square, but you’ll also find, depending on the time you go, the children’s market, the charity market, and a special arts and crafts market, among others.

Visitors can shop for artisanal cheeses, local crafts, excellent pastries, and more during the Mercatino, which runs from late November to early January. Since Bolzano is also the gateway to the Dolomites, those who have had their fill of holiday cheer can escape for a skiing holiday to some of Europe’s most beautiful slopes.

And, of course, Bolzano is also home to the Archaeological Museum of South Tyrol, where the 5,000-year-old Copper Age ice mummy Ötzi lies preserved, one of the best and oldest examples of a human mummy on the European continent. While not exactly a Christmas-themed activity, Ötzi still shouldn’t be missed when you’re in the area.

2. Burg Bentheim, Germany

Sitting high above the German town of Bad Bentheim is the early medieval castle of Burg Bentheim. Possibly built in the 11th century, the castle is a popular destination and even a wedding venue year-round, thanks to its lovely gardens, soaring Pulvurturm, and exquisite stained glasswork.

Winter, however, is when Burg Bentheim really begins to shine. Each November and December, the castle is draped in twinkling fairy lights and festooned with garlands for the annual Burg Bentheim Christmas Market. In the courtyard, little wooden huts are built to house a number of vendors with their holiday wares for sale, and the scents of fresh waffles and glühwein fill the crisp winter air. Thousands of visitors walk through the castle gates annually to enjoy the market and explore the castle itself, where they are rewarded with musical performances and educational exhibits.

Plan your visit to Bad Bentheim for the right winter weekend and you’ll also get to enjoy the city’s own Christmas market, for double the holiday festive fun.

3. Røros, Norway

Charming Røros, a former copper mining town in the central Norwegian county of Trondelag, is worth a visit any time of year. Thanks to its historic timber houses and the stunning Røros Church, the entire town was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. To walk through Røros is to feel as though you’re living in an illustrated fairytale, so it is not surprising that it was part of the visual inspiration for Disney’s Frozen.

Come the icy, dark months of winter, Røros is transformed into a snow-covered wonderland, with residents in Nordic handknits traversing the streets using traditional kick-sleds called sparken (which guests are encouraged to rent!). The peak of the city’s cozy winter charm is its Christmas market, beloved throughout the entire country.

The second weekend of Advent sees the customary wooden huts erected in the streets surrounding Røros Kirke, where traditional foods and handcrafts will be sold. Pick up a mug of gløgg and browse through the shops, admire musical and theatrical performances from the locals, and once you find your energy starting to flag, get tucked up in a horse-drawn carriage for a cozy ride through the streets of Norway’s most Christmasy town.

4. Valkenburg, The Netherlands

15 minutes from Maastricht by train, you’ll find the small city of Valkenburg. Like Røros, Valkenburg is a mining town, though the product here was the carbonate mineral known as marl, rather than copper.

Marl was vital in the construction of Kasteel Valkenburg, which was first erected in the 12th century. The marl used to build the castle came from beneath the hill it was built on, creating a network of tunnels that were originally used as a defensive feature — people and goods could be smuggled through the tunnels, either for escapes or to enable surprise ambushes.

Today, the tunnels beneath Kasteel Valkenburg are known as the “velvet cave.” Bedecked with stunning murals painted in the intervening centuries, the cave is a fascinating place to visit any time of the year, but come December, it is lit up with lanterns and transformed into a unique subterranean Christmas market. Guests can shop for interesting gifts, enjoy festive snacks during their time in the velvet cave, and walk away with memories of a fantastically different Christmas market experience.

Wrap up your subterranean holiday festivities by heading topside and climbing the hill to summit Kasteel Valkenburg. Not only is it an important part of Dutch history but at the top, you’ll be treated to stunning sprawling views of the surrounding forest lands and Valkenburg’s lovely old town center. Truly not an experience to miss.

5. Óbidos, Portugal

Medieval Óbidos in southern Portugal is one of the country’s best-preserved examples of a fortified city. One of UNESCO’s “Cities of Literature,” it is also known as a book lover’s paradise, with multiple bookshops established in antique buildings, a book hotel in a former convent, and literary festivals a few times a year.

Given the bookish bent of the village, it should come as no surprise that every December, Óbidos transforms herself into a candy-coated fairytale Christmas utopia. Known as the Óbidos Vila Natal, the festival sees the city’s medieval castle draped in icy strings of lights, an ice skating rink is poured at the base of the ramparts, and of course, the market itself is set up with dozens of stalls full of local wares and food.

Óbidos prides itself on being the Christmas village of Portugal, so you can trust that when you visit the Vila Natal, you’ll leave filled to the brim with Christmas cheer.

Tips For Visiting European Christmas Markets

Check the weather before your visit and be prepared to bundle up very warmly. Destinations like Røros can reach sub-zero temperatures, and even cities in Italy and Portugal experience deep cold snaps in December. Frostbite isn’t festive — stay warm and dry.

Wear sturdy, comfortable shoes or boots with rubber soles. Some of these markets are located in very hilly cities with cobblestone streets. You want to avoid foot fatigue and slipping as much as possible.

Keep some cash—no bills larger than €50—on hand. Some market stalls may not be equipped with card readers, and it may be a long walk to the nearest ATM.

Above all, enjoy your visits to the most charming winter wonderland markets in Europe!

Platonic love, a concept pondered by thinkers, writers, and hopeless romantics for millennia: what does it signify? At its core, Platonic love describes a profound non-romantic bond between two people who prize each other’s attributes, appreciate them, and comprehend them deeply. Unlike romantic love, which is frequently defined by fervor and wanting, platonic love does not encompass sexual longing or infatuation. It goes beyond relationships’ shallow facets and concentrates on closeness, emotional intimacy, and mind-to-mind connection. Let’s break it down further.

The Nature of Love

Plato’s philosophy considers love, known as Eros in Greek, to be much more complicated than romance or sexual desire. In works such as Symposium and Phaedrus, Plato examines how love is important for striving toward truth and beauty. 

For Plato, love has two sides: wanting physical beauty and craving connection on an intellectual level so you can better understand things together. The Symposium shows this duality when speakers discuss different aspects of love—everything from lust to something purely spiritual.

For Plato, physical attraction is only the beginning of love. It acts like a doorway, leading someone who desires beautiful individuals towards appreciating beauty itself, in all its abstract wonder.

In this metaphorical description of love’s growth, love starts with only one beautiful body and eventually leads to loving all beautiful bodies. Finally, one recognizes beauty itself in its pure form—and loves it.

Plato also suggests that love is a basic desire for goodness and beauty; it’s not just about wanting pleasure from someone’s looks or company. Rather, there is something godlike about it because it can lift our souls closer to truths about everything! 

According to Plato, love helps us become noble people with worthwhile lives as we move toward goodness and beauty.

The Ladder of Love

Plato’s analogy for the progression of love towards a truer beauty, which he calls the “Ladder of Love,” is presented in his dialogue Symposium. This ladder provides a structure for how love develops from its most basic physical manifestation to something abstract and even divine.

At the bottom of the ladder is desire purely based on looks; here, one only has eyes for another’s body because it looks good. But Plato suggests this can open people up to finding more things beautiful. 

The next rung sees individuals appreciate all attractive bodies, not just one: by broadening their appreciation in this way, they move beyond possessiveness toward loving physical beauty in general.

Afterward, the person starts valuing beautiful minds more than appearances and appreciates the importance of being connected intellectually and spiritually rather than physically. This shows a major change as they now care more for virtues and someone’s character.

As they climb the ladder, they also learn to appreciate beautiful laws and ways of doing things: seeing harmony between people as beautiful, fairness in society, or even how well-organized something is.

The very top step of the ladder is the love of the Form of Beauty itself: something that never changes, is always there, and is always true—not just something pretty one day but ugly the next! It does not mean liking pretty shapes or colors selfishly. Rather, it means loving beauty everywhere you see it because you think it shows truth, too.

The Role of the Lover and the Beloved

Ancient Greek society placed great importance on the connection between a lover (erastes) and the object of their affection (eromenos), seeing it as a way to gain knowledge and grow morally. This idea is explored at length in the works of Plato, who examines how these relationships can encourage people to be good and seek wisdom.

Plato does not stick with the usual meaning of this kind of love. Instead, he presents an idealized version where physical desire takes a back seat to learning from one another.

We frequently see Plato’s fascination with this Platonic concept in his dialogues. He suggests that the relationship can spur individuals toward both goodness and the quest for knowledge. Typically, one person in such pairings is older—and thus has more life experience—and earnestly desires something beautiful inside their younger counterpart to flourish or grow.

However, Plato takes this desire further than just physical attraction. He suggests that both people in the relationship should use this feeling as a reason to try and move closer to perfect beauty and goodness.

Plato thinks that if you really admire somebody and are helping them on their way towards becoming good and wise (which is what he means by guiding them up the ladder), then your relationship with each other will be one based on mutual respect. Furthermore, both of you will want to live like that.

In this way, Plato argues that love itself has an educative power that helps souls (or minds) grow toward truths about themselves and the world around them! In this view, love transforms all human relationships from being primarily about desiring together into something higher.

Love and the Immortality of the Soul

In Plato’s Phaedrus, love is intimately associated with the immortality of the soul and the soul’s journey toward truth and beauty. Love, according to Plato, can be a kind of “divine madness” necessary if the soul is to rise and grasp higher things—things that connect it to the gods themselves.

This isn’t a bad sort of madness. On the contrary, it lifts people out of their dull normality into an exalted world beyond rational understanding. They are moved by forces greater than themselves—just as prophets or mystics are when they say God has taken them over.

Plato suggests that this divine madness should not be confused with garden-variety craziness. Rather, it is an otherworldly blessing that enables souls to recall what they knew about perfect beauty and goodness before they were born: in other words, essential truths that go far beyond everyday appearances.

As per Plato, love serves as a trigger that reminds the soul of its encounter with Forms in an earlier existence and prompts it to yearn for the beauty and truth it once experienced because the soul is immortal.

Because of this desire for lost knowledge and goodness—brought back to mind by love, says Plato—individuals are encouraged to try reaching higher planes of understanding and living as they seek out what is truly worthwhile (the divine).

Plato’s idea suggests that love isn’t just about liking someone a lot or feeling physically close to them. Instead, he sees it as a journey that can help people think deeply about philosophy (how we know things) and spirituality (what things mean in a context beyond ourselves). 

It proposes that through loving someone, we not only might get closer to immortality but also come nearer to knowing absolutely true things because we once saw them for ourselves.

Love as a Path to the Good

Plato believed that love is connected to wanting what is good. He thought love’s power drives people who want to live with virtue and justice. If we understand this idea, love can help us change for the better.

For Plato, the Good is central. It shows how love can transform us because, through love, we can move towards truths and ideals that give life meaning.

The Good, for Plato, is the highest reality. It does not change and provides a foundation for goodness and ethics. Knowing about something ultimately means knowing how it relates to the Good. Everything beneficial or desirable stems from it.

Within this philosophical system, individuals feel moved by love to connect themselves with the Good: they yearn for truth, beauty, and righteousness—values associated with goodness—that go beyond their own wants or needs. This longing affects more than just their thoughts or feelings; it also influences one’s character—who they are—and how they act in day-to-day life.

In Plato’s philosophy, the Form of the Good holds a position similar to that of the Form of Beauty. It is considered an utmost perfect ideal that people should strive to understand and embrace completely.

Love serves as a mentor for this journey, encouraging an intense desire within individuals to improve themselves morally and acquire virtues such as wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice. Love inspires people to lead ethical lives that promote social well-being and harmony.

Plato sees love not as something confined to an individual’s private life; instead, it is crucial for understanding what makes us human and how we can be happy. Love leads people towards philosophical inquiry about goodness itself: What does it mean? How can we live by its standards? How might the world become more virtuous and harmonious?

So, What Is Platonic Love in Simple Words?

Platonic love is a deep affection between people that doesn’t involve physical attraction or longing. Instead, it’s about being close emotionally and mentally and having things in common.

The idea of Platonic love dates back to the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, who believed that a loving relationship should be based on fostering each other’s soul or mind. 

When you have this kind of love for someone, you care about them deeply and value their well-being, but not because you want them to be your partner or lover—though you might still call them “the love of my life” or say “I adore them.” There’s just no romantic or sexual fulfillment expected.

This type of bond also appreciates how beautiful it can be for two people to connect in such a way that they help each other grow personally and morally, perhaps even towards shared goals or aims.

By having these sorts of connections, we’re encouraged not only to self-improve but also to gain more wisdom about ourselves and everything around us—something that might make our lives richer overall!

In the crazy, tumultuous decades of the Old West, few lawmen’s names ring out like Bass Reeves. As one the few African American lawmen in the West, Reeves began as a U.S. Marshal in 1875, hired by the infamous Hanging Judge Parker. Despite prevalent racial attitudes, few men matched Reeves’s storied career in terms of success, ability, or determination.

Where Was Bass Reeves Born and Taken To?

Born as a slave in 1838 Crawford Country, Arkansas, Reeves traveled with his owner’s family to Texas as a child. He worked in the fields until he was old enough to serve or protect his owner’s son. The start of the American Civil War found Reeves traveling and perhaps fighting alongside his owner, Colonel George Reeves. This situation did not last long; sometime in 1861, Reeves attacked the Colonel and fled into Indian Territory. There, no law could touch them.

How Did Living in Indian Territory Benefit Reeves Later?

The time Reeves spent as a fugitive in the Indian Territory, later called Oklahoma, proved fruitful. This vast chunk of territory housed the exiled Five Nations tribes of Native Americans sent there decades prior by the U.S. government. Once becoming a deputy ten years later, Reeves, a natural polyglot, learned their languages – Choctaw, Seminole, Cherokee, Cree, and Chickasaw. His ability and contacts aided in hunting down outlaws who hid in Oklahoma. Reeves left the area upon hearing of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, settling down in Arkansas.

When Did Bass Reeves Start His Career as a U.S. Marshal?

1875 turned out to be a time of lawlessness in the American West. Many new towns experienced a need for more professional lawmen. The U.S. government created laws, but enforcing them was a different matter. In a push to reign in the chaos, the government hired two hundred U.S. Marshals, Bass Reeves among them. 

Reeves’s qualifications for the job seemed tailor-made for the job. He was already fluent in the local languages and adept with pistol or rifle. Additionally, the Native Americans taught him tracking and stalking. Judge Parker and Reeve’s fellow law enforcement officers later would benefit from his marksmanship and tracking abilities. Few would have a prolific career like Reeves. As a Marshal, Reeves would help cover Arkansas and Oklahoma, which meant over 70,000 square miles in 1875.

Why Is Bass Reeves Considered Such a Great Lawman?

Many things made an Old West lawman dangerous. First, most became crack shots. An American Civil War veteran, Reeves knew guns. Also, guns were a frontier tool, whether for outlaws or hunting. Reeves constantly practiced being that crack shot. He achieved quick draw or accurate shooting of revolvers with either hand. His two Colt revolvers and Winchester rifle were the same caliber, cutting out errors while reloading.

Besides his formidable gun and tracking skills, Reeves’s integrity cemented his reputation. During Reeves’s time, many outlaws also became lawmen before switching back. Reeves never played that game. He kept an honest reputation, at one point arresting his son for murder.

What Dangerous Fugitives Did Bass Reeves Arrest or Kill?

Bass’s career lasted from 1875 until his retirement in 1907. Probably as dangerous as the outlaws themselves, he arrested over 3,000 outlaws and shot fourteen men dead. He clashed with notorious outlaws like Tom Story. Their entanglement lasted five years, from 1884 to 1889, as Bass tracked Story. Known for his horse thievery, Story eluded the law until Reeves took up the chase. Bass tracked Story to his Oklahoma hideout. Their confrontation escalated, both drawing their guns, and Reeves shot Story dead. In another perilous encounter, Reeves tracked down Jim Webb in 1884. Known for a violent temper, Webb killed an African American preacher. 

Reeves memorized Webb’s arrest warrant as he was illiterate. He found, arrested, and imprisoned Webb, but the outlaw escaped. Their subsequent encounter ended in a shootout as Bass shot him down from 500 yards with his Winchester. Webb’s shots grazed Reeves’s saddle horn, coat button, and hat. Soon, Reeves’s reputation became intimidating enough that Belle Starr, another disreputable outlaw, surrendered upon hearing the U.S. Marshal now owned her warrant. 

Why Was Bass Reeves Arrested?

In 1884 year, Reeves was arrested for the shooting death of his posse’s cook. He admitted to the shooting, claiming the event was accidental. Based on his ironclad reputation for honesty, the charges were dropped. Bass Reeves’s long career ended as a policeman when Oklahoma gained statehood in 1907. By then, the great lawman’s health began to fail. After only two years, perhaps the Old West’s greatest lawman passed away from nephritis, or kidney disease.

For a long time, collage technique was present in the long list of human creative activities, but it was rarely considered an art form. Everything changed with the advent of Cubism when Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso introduced collage as an expressive technique that widened artistic potential. From Cubism, collage moved to other art styles and movements, and still remains a popular technique among contemporary artists. Read on to get familiar with collage and the Cubist artistic revolution.

What Inspired Cubist Collages?

Cubism truly was one of the most radical and groundbreaking inventions in the history of art that changed the visual culture and perception of art. As a revolutionary art movement of the 1910s, Cubism grew out of several equally important factors. First was the influence of another great French artist, Paul Cezanne. Cezanne argued that any natural form could be simplified to a sphere, cone, or cylinder, turning the scene into a geometric structure. Cezanne’s still lifes and landscapes illustrated this principle. Sometimes, Cezanne represented objects, mostly fruit, placed in baskets and tables. In his works, these seemed slightly more complicated than they actually were, as if seen from several viewpoints at once.

Another key influence was African and Polynesian art, which became widely available in Europe around the time Picasso and Braque started their Cubist experiments. Non-Western art offered a radically different approach to rendering figures and spaces, representing different expressive forms and ideas. Constantly looking for alternatives to the existing order, Picasso collected African art and was even involved in an art theft. On his request, an ex-secretary of Guillaume Apollinaire Honore-Joseph Géry Pieret, notorious for his flexible morals and criminal experience, stole three prehistoric artifacts from the Louvre. These artifacts were Iberian sculpture heads that possessed Picasso’s mind. Soon after the theft, he revealed the final product of his inspiration—the legendary canvas Les Demoiselles d’Avignon.

Picasso and Braque brought Cezanne’s idea of geometric forms to the extreme, converting the entire pictorial space into geometric language. The expressive style of African art manifested itself in mask-like faces and stylized bodies. To focus on the structure of their object, Cubists minimized their color palettes to grays and browns. What started as a radical simplification of form turned into an intellectual exercise of collecting an expressive and multi-dimensional mosaic of forms, shapes, and conditions.

Collage as an Art Form

Collage is an art technique based on combining separate elements and forms to create something unrelated to the meanings and functions of its components. It is usually two-dimensional, gathered from drawings, cutouts, and other flat fragments. Assemblage, on the other hand, deals with three-dimensional objects and fragments.

The technique of collage most likely appeared soon after the invention of paper and its widespread use. However, it was hardly ever treated as a separate art form. Some art historians argue that, technically, medieval manuscript illumination with the application of gold leaf and gemstones was the earliest form of collage art in the West. Others cite early experiments with printed photographs, popular in the Victorian era, as another precedent. Many affluent Victorian women kept photo albums with cutout photographs glued to small drawings or paintings, creating caricatures and comic strips.

However, the true acceptance of collage as an art form started with Picasso and Braque’s experiments. After several years of intellectual exercises with form, artists started to look for new decorative and conceptual qualities that would enrich their expressive potential. By gluing wallpaper pieces, newspaper clippings, music sheets, and other objects, Braque and Picasso extended their pictorial space from canvases to the physical world. Elements of collage also created complex visual rhythms and compositional challenges for the artists.

Futurism and Cubo-Futurism

In all its complexity, Cubism had one major flaw: it was stable and immobile. The analytical exploration of cubist composition could not possibly handle the moving and transforming nature of objects in their active state. Futurist art, on the contrary, focused on mechanical mobility, speed, and dynamism, rejecting passive states.

In the Russian Empire, young radical artists managed to combine the two movements into something they called Cubo-Futurism. Unlike Cubism, which existed outside narratives, Cubo-Futurist works often built an image of utopian modernity with technology and humans organized into a single forward-moving force. It represented motion, dynamism, and optimism about the technological future. In Cubo-Futurism, the Cubist technique of collage received an odd and rather surprising twist. Newspaper fragments and letters frequently appeared in compositions, but usually, they were similarly painted on canvas. Such imitation of collage was explained by the Cubo-Futurist expressive goal. Instead of expanding their painted space into reality, they aimed to augment its expressivity with verbal and written signals.

Collage in Abstract Art

Collage techniques migrated from Cubism to other styles and movements. They were particularly adopted by abstract artists like Jean Arp, who used collage to manipulate chance and the metaphysical nature of abstract art. Arp cut or tore out shapes from colored paper and threw them on the floor in random order. The compositions, created “according to the Law of Chance,” became blueprints for the next step of his work. Then, the artist carved out fragments of the same shape from wood and carefully arranged them so they would correspond exactly to the shapes created by chance. This voluntary loss of control over art was part of Arp’s idea to reinvent art and the relationship between an artwork and an artist.

Henri Matisse and Collage

A friend and rival of Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse was known as the principal representative of the Fauvist movement and a skilled artist who centered his efforts around color and its effects. For Matisse, his use of collage was less about creative experiment and more the result of necessity. After his cancer surgery in 1941, Matisse was confined to bed and had difficulty painting and holding a brush for a long time. Because of this, collage became an alternative for him. He cut out shapes from paper colored by his assistants and arranged the pieces into large-scale, colorful works. These compositions, enthusiastically accepted by critics and collectors, were monuments of artistic resilience that still reflected Matisse’s lifelong obsession with color and form.

After Cubism: Collage in Modern and Contemporary Art

Despite the development of artistic techniques and technology, collage as an art form did not go extinct, and it continues to develop in the works of many artists. Feminist artist Miriam Schapiro used collage as a form of bridging the gap between decorative fine art. She assembled her collages from patterned fabrics, referencing centuries of women’s manual labor related to sewing, crocheting, viewing, and patternmaking.

Some art historians believe that textile and design and other fabric-related crafts were excluded from the domain of art not only due to their practical purpose but also because of the label of feminine occupations. While painting and sculpture were in different ears analyzed through the prism of divine intervention or scientific knowledge, domestic crafts were treated as useful yet simple results of manual practice, devoid of intellectual effort. In that sense, Schapiro’s collages revert to this tradition, bringing millennia-old practices into the domain of fine art.

Contemporary Kenyan artist Wangechi Mutu used collages to comment upon the beauty industry and unattainable standards for women, as well as the way science absorbs cultural stereotypes. Mutu compiled her images from fashion magazines, medical atlases on female anatomy and tropical diseases, celebrity posters, and other media centered around the dictated feminine appearance. Built from seemingly perfect details intended to reflect the acceptable concepts of beauty and sexuality, they turn into monstrous non-human creatures. Issues of race, health, and age reveal themselves as pathological conditions.

Outside of art galleries, collages are often used as forms of artistic self-expression in diaries, personal notebooks, and social media. This way, they represent curated images of one’s identity intended either for public viewing or personal contemplation. Korean artist Kang Seung Lee, one of the most remarkable names of the 2024 Venice Biennale, utilizes collage to talk about artists who died during the AIDS crisis as the result of illness and its complications. Each collage is a story compiled from watercolor paintings, quotes from letters and diaries, personal objects, and embroideries. Kang Seung Lee immortalizes these figures in a non-monumental and non-hierarchical way, preserving intimate personalities in all their tenderness and complexity instead of rigid public images.

One of the most popular and available accessories, feathers have been used for thousands of years as both single statement pieces and parts of more elaborate garments. The native South and North Americans have used feathers to create ritual headdresses. In Europe, Marie Antoinette famously wore huge ostrich feathers mounted on her powdered wigs. The Victorian age saw a radical and sharp increase in demand for feathers. One of the reasons for that was the colonization of previously unseen territories.

Victorian Age: The Rise of Overconsumption and Absurd Trends

The brilliant feathers of unfamiliar hues soon turned into precious specimens for ornithologists and the most desired accessories for trendsetters. The Victorian feather craze was perhaps one of the wildest and most absurd cases in the history of Western fashion. The Victorian era also gave rise to fast fashion and rapidly changing trends as we know them. Industrialization facilitated production and distribution chains and led to the expansion of ladies’ closets.

Ideally, a Victorian woman was supposed to own different sets of clothing for breakfast, tea, dinner, church, shopping, and every other occasion. Of course, this was hardly affordable for the majority of Victorian women. To create the impression of an extensive wardrobe, they used accessories. A hat was an absolute necessity, both for the matters of respectability and for making an aesthetic statement.

As bird specimens flooded Europe, the millinery masters saw new opportunities to expand their businesses. Instead of boring pheasant feathers, they could now offer a wide array of birds, many of them imported from overseas. From curiosity cabinets and ornithologists’ glass cases, birds soon moved to window displays, turning into the ultimate status symbols. With the influx of exotic feathers on the market, Victorian milliners soon moved from decorating their hats with a few bright feathers to mounting entire bird skins onto them. The bird had to look as lively and active as possible, thus the dead being had glass eyes and often widely stretched wings.

Soon, the feather craze reached its peak. In 1886, one of American ornithologists counted seven hundred women wearing feathered hats during his walk through Upper Manhattan. More than five hundred of them wore entire bird skins on their heads, all exotic and rare. Apart from hats, other garments continued the feather trend, often to an absolutely horrifying extent. Merchants sold entire floor-length cloaks made out of thousands of bird skins sewn together.

Egrets, herons, parrots, and quetzals were slaughtered in millions to support the ever-growing demand. American ornithologists complained that because of the skyrocketing prices they could not afford to buy bird specimens anymore. Abroad, dead birds were stripped of their precious feathers and left to decay, poisoning the land, while their nestlings died of starvation. Yet, it would take more than three decades for the authorities to implement at least some measures.

Fly-Tying: The Male Equivalent of the Feather Craze

While women preoccupied themselves with the latest fashions, Victorian men also found themselves a hobby to go along with the feather trend. The Victorian era saw the rise of fishing as a recreational hobby for the wealthy rather than a life-saving necessity. The affluent and respectable gentlemen spent their weekends on private lakes cordoned off from the rest of the public, turning a seemingly peaceful hobby into a ruthless competition.

Apart from the fishing itself, they reinvented the ancient practice of fly-tying—crafting artificial flies from natural materials to use them as bait for salmon and trout. However, in a competitive environment of affluent Victorian gentlemen, fly-tying soon became an art form. To impress their fellow fishermen, they crafted ties from exotic bird feathers and polar bear fur, constructing complex and multi-colored compositions from hundreds of feathers. Many of them published elaborate treatises on the necessity of using genuine imported materials to fool the trained eye of a salmon. Obviously, salmon was not as fastidious as they would like it to be, yet the fly-tying hobby went too far to rely on common sense.

Hundreds of thousands of people were employed in the feather-producing sector, soon arranging separate work unions for merchants, dyers, and even children exploited by the industry. Equally rapid and mind-boggling was the scale of destruction caused by the newly emerged market. By the 1900s, two hundred million birds were killed for feather trade in North America only. The populations declined rapidly, yet, for a while, the decline only affected the feather prices which grew day by day.

The religiously inclined mind of an average Victorian could not fathom the concept of species extinction due to human activity. After all, the existence of all creatures, both men and birds, relied on God’s will, and God would definitely not allow anything to happen to them. Yet, the abnormal demand for exotic feathers and bird skins soon proved that the creative force of the divine power could not catch up with the destructive potential of humankind.

The Anti-Feather Movement

Ever since the rise of the feather trend, there were people who actively opposed it. In 1875, Harper’s Bazaar magazine published an article condemning the casual cruelty of women choosing fashion trends over Christian humility and inflicting pain and suffering on poor creatures. The suffragists joined in—they saw expensive and complex fashions as a way for society to distract women from self-improvement and intellectual development.

Since 1889, British activists founded several groups and societies dedicated to the protection of birds and the limitations of the feather trade. The members of communities like The Plumage League or The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds consisted entirely of women who refused to wear feathers and actively encouraged others to do so. They attended dinners and tea parties to tell other guests about the inhumane nature of the feather industry with a focus on the immediate danger to wildlife. As it turned out, many ladies had been convinced that the mass-scale feather trade relied on feathers molten naturally, without any harm to the birds. Others insisted there was nothing wrong with killing animals since humanity had to establish its dominance over nature.

The End of Victorian Age’s Feather Craze  

Noticing the shifting trend, the press joined in, soon starting to publish caricatures of women covered with dead birds head to toe, calling them the real birds of prey. However, present-day historians pinpoint it as the case of commonly spread misogyny: although the industry was male-dominated, women as the target audience of the trade became the scapegoats. The same magazines that previously promoted feathered fashions started to publish photographs of birds slaughtered and skinned. Yet, the feather traders fought back, insisting that a ban on their business would result in thousands of people losing their jobs, subsequently damaging the global economy.

Finally, the activists’ efforts paid off. By the end of the 1910s, both the United States and Great Britain passed laws banning the import of foreign feathers and hunting of endangered species on their territories. Still, over a century later, some of the birds that were used for feathers like the 45 existing species of Birds-of-Paradise remain endangered. Although the feather craze is long gone, humanity continues to ruin the birds’ natural habitat through pollution and deforestation.

So, how did such an absurdly massive and dangerous fashion trend come to its end? Did it simply go out of style, or was it abandoned by the next generation, or were there some other forces at play? Thanks to the efforts of women activists and the press, a woman dressed in feathers soon became a stereotypical image of an old-fashioned, cruel, and irresponsible person. Yet, as fashion historians note, the final blow to the great feather craze came not from developing social responsibility but from technological advancement. The newly invented automobile left no room for voluminous headdresses, which soon were replaced by tight-fitting cloche hats.

Furthermore, the rise of public cinema made wearing a large feathered hat possibly the worst crime you could commit against your fellow moviegoers. Fashion transitioned into a period of practicality and liberalism, particularly with the increasing participation of women in the workforce. The devastating impact of World War I and wartime austerity left little room for lavish fashions and turned excessive demonstration of wealth into obscenity.

Peer through the lenses of American photographers in Amsterdam. Explore Hiroshige’s Edo-period Japan in modern-day London. Discover poignant new perspectives on the origin story of Surrealism, the trailblazing women of Modernism, the surprisingly diverse legacy of British landscape painting, and much more. Spanning various cultures and several centuries, these are ten of the best art exhibitions heading to European museums in 2025.

American Photography

1 February–9 June at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the Netherlands

The first major retrospective of American photography in the Netherlands will showcase over 200 photographic works by influential artists, including Nan Goldin, Andy Warhol, Diane Arbus, and more. American Photography will also introduce images by lesser-known and anonymous photographers who have captured authentic and oft-forgotten facets of American life.

“The exhibition presents the country as seen through the eyes of American photographers,” says Amsterdam’s Rijksmuseum. “It shows how photography as a medium became deeply rooted in American society.”

Kandinsky’s Universe: Geometric Abstraction in the 20th Century

15 February–18 May at Museum Barberini in Potsdam, Germany

Wassily Kandinsky’s work boasts an innovative interplay of colors, lines, and shapes. The Russian-born artist is often credited with pioneering abstract art in Western culture. This exhibition tracks Kandinksy’s indelible impact at a time when modern artists turned to abstraction. Instead of representing strictly visible phenomena, they used geometry to visualize elusive spiritual themes.

The Museum Barberini’s presentation of Kandinsky’s Universe unites over 100 abstract artworks by nearly as many artists—including Josef Albers, Sonia Delaunay, Bridget Riley, Frank Stella, and, of course, Kandinsky himself.

Gustav Klimt: Pigment & Pixel

20 February–7 September at Belvedere Museum in Vienna, Austria

At the turn of the 20th century, Gustav Klimt was commissioned to decorate the vast ceilings of the University of Vienna’s festival hall. The resulting “Faculty Paintings”—with their unidealized allegorical figures, unfamiliar symbolism, and shocking eroticism—attracted both crowds and controversy. Unfortunately, the original paintings have since been lost, and only black-and-white photos remain.

In 2021, the Leopold Museum of Vienna collaborated with Google to ascertain the original colors of Klimt’s Faculty Paintings using artificial intelligence and imaging technology. Gustav Klimt: Pigment & Pixel unveils these exciting new insights into the Austrian artist’s work.

Gothic Modern: From Darkness to Light

28 February–15 June at Nasjonalmuseet in Oslo, Norway

Artists across Northern Europe have long been fascinated by all things Gothic. This exhibition investigates how modern artists—such as Edvard Munch, Käthe Kollwitz, and Ernst Kirchner—found inspiration in their distant Gothic Age counterparts—like Albrecht Dürer and Hans Holbein. It is being billed as the first international exhibition to explore such a juxtaposition.

Gothic Modern is presented in seven thematic chapters: The Journey to the Gothic, Pilgrims of Art, Encounters with Death, Fellowship, Gothic Variations, From Love to Suffering, and Between Light and Darkness.

Siena: The Rise of Painting, 1300–1500 

8 March–22 June at the National Gallery of Art in London, England

Florence is typically thought of as the birthplace of Italian Renaissance art. However, this exhibition asserts Siena’s important influence on the course of art history as we know it. Over 100 works by Sienese artists—including paintings, sculptures, metalwork, textiles, and more—offer a fresh perspective on the development and dissemination of Italian painting in the Renaissance era.

Siena: The Rise of Painting is heading to London after a successful run at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Notably, the exhibition reunites long-separated panels from Duccio’s Maestà Altarpiece and Simone Martini’s Orsini Polyptych.

Hiroshige: Artist of the Open Road

1 May–7 September at the British Museum in London, England

Join master 19th-century printmaker Utagawa Hiroshige on a colorful journey through the lush landscapes and bustling urban life of Edo-period Japan. This exhibition is the first to focus on the ukiyo-e artist at the British Museum. It will illuminate Hiroshige’s important influence on modern and contemporary artists, including Vincent van Gogh and the French Impressionists.

Hiroshige: Artist of the Open Road showcases woodblock prints, drawings, illustrated books, and paintings from the British Museum’s collection, as well as a significant gift loan of prints from a major U.S. collector of Hiroshige’s work.

Rendezvous of Dreams: Surrealism and German Romanticism

13 June–12 October at Hamburgerkunsthalle in Hamburg, Germany

In 1924, Surrealism emerged from the ashes of World War I in Paris. A century later, there are still new things to discover about the transformative movement. This exhibition draws fascinating connections between 20th-century Surrealism and 19th-century German Romanticism. It brings together hundreds of works, including paintings, drawings, sculptures, literature, film, photography, and other objects.

According to Hamburgerkunsthalle, “fascinating parallels come to light with respect to fundamental questions, attitudes, motifs, and even pictorial processes” in Rendezvous of Dreams. “The supernatural and irrational, dreams and chance, a feeling of community, and encounters with a changing natural world were vital sources of inspiration for German Romanticism and shaped international Surrealism differently a century later.”

Radical! Women Artists and Modernism, 1910–1950

18 June–12 October at Belvedere Museum in Vienna, Austria

This exhibition creates a compelling conversation between modern women artists from over 20 countries. From the technicolor Orphism of Sonia Delaunay to the striking Art Deco portraiture of Tamara de Lempicka, these women broke through barriers by capturing their rapidly changing surroundings across a wide range of artistic practices.

Radical! “challenges the male-driven art history that marginalized or even erased women artists from the canon” and “enriches this art-historical narrative with a kaleidoscope of new perspectives,” says the Belvedere Museum.

Leonora Carrington

October 2025–February 2026 at Palazzo Reale in Milan, Italy

Following a year of bidding wars and record-high sale prices at auction, the Surrealist superstar Leonora Carrington is getting her first-ever retrospective in Italy. The exhibition will examine the complex influence of Carrington’s international travels and immigration, from her formative teenage visits to Florence to her camaraderie with European Surrealists in Mexico.

The official title and exact opening dates of the Leonora Carrington exhibition at Milan’s Palazzo Reale are yet to be announced.

Turner and Constable

27 November, 2025–April 12, 2026, at Tate Britain in London, England

Two of Britain’s most beloved landscape artists face off in a dual exhibition commemorating the 250th year of their births. John Constable aimed for authenticity in his masterfully meticulous portrayals of classic British landscapes. Meanwhile, his peer, J. M. W. Turner, painted sublime sunsets and shipwrecks, approaching near-abstraction with audacious expressivity. This exhibition examines the artists’ intertwined—and often rivaled—lives and legacies.

“Art critics compared their paintings to a clash of ‘fire and water,’” says Tate Britain. Turner and Constable is a unique opportunity to discover the two painters “as they often were in their own time—side by side.”

Pablo Picasso was a man who made works in various styles. He was highly experimental, and if he wasn’t one of the most famous artists that ever lived, you’d be forgiven for thinking his body of work was created by a diverse group of artists. One of the things that combines all his different styles is a masterful approach to composition. He combined color, form, and structure in highly skilled ways. We can see this in each of his paintings.

1. Portrait d’Angel Fernández de Soto

Composition is all about how you combine all the elements that are part of a painting. The colors in this image are somber and it’s designed to portray sorrow. If blue was the only color used in the painting, it wouldn’t be as effective. There are flesh tones, but they are green. Picasso used color and structure to convey his own sorrow. The mood of the painting is clear and can be understood by the viewer. If you ask a child if this is a happy or sad painting, most children will understand that it is sad. By recognizing that emotion, you also acknowledge that Picasso successfully conveyed sorrow through clever composition.

The above diagram reduces the image to its basic structure. The shape on the top right shows the light area in the background. Without it, the composition wouldn’t be balanced. There would be too much light in the bottom half of the canvas. The flesh and man’s face are a focal point, and the painting requires a more even distribution of light to support that aspect of the composition.

Through his art, Picasso showed that he understood this well. You’ll notice that the cup contains a shape that is roughly the same as the shape of the face. When it comes to structure, repeating basic shapes can lead to a more interesting composition. The detail and color used on the cup and face contrast entirely, but the shape is the same. Having a point of similarity unites those parts of the canvas.

2. Harlequin with a Mirror 

The versatility of Picasso was one of the things that made him a genius. This painting has a completely different feel from the previous one. Its mood is light and playful. At first glance, the composition seems standard, yet it is more sophisticated than it first appears. The boy is shown from head to knee, meaning his body forms a backward L shape. The brown background enhances this, creating another backward L shape. Those shapes lead your eyes to focus on the upper left of the canvas. That is the focal point of the image. The light blue curves inside the brown and softens the backward L shape as your eyes move to that image section. There, we see the boy’s face gazing at the mirror.

When depicting a face, you choose where the model will look. It’s a 3-dimensional world being flattened into a 2-dimensional depiction. This means that a painting of a face looking in a specific direction will connect two places on the canvas. It creates an invisible line between the face and the mirror. When the viewer looks at the face, they follow the invisible line towards the mirror. The line doesn’t need to be drawn because we see it in our minds. People do this automatically, and you can tell from Picasso’s use of composition that he was aware of this.

In the diagram, the image is simplified to its basic structure. The boy’s left leg is slightly lifted, giving it a backward L shape, but the positioning of the color blue is somewhat diagonal. Something that’s emphasized by the positioning of the other leg. The blue in the lower part of the canvas is almost parallel to the invisible line between the face and the mirror.

3. Les Demoiselles d’Avignon

This is one of Picasso’s most famous paintings. It’s an image influenced by African art, and its style differs from the previous image we looked at. The women’s faces almost turn into tribal masks. Three women are looking directly toward the viewer. When an artist paints eyes that look at the viewer, they push the viewer to engage. It establishes a relationship with the painting and what it depicts. The two women, one on the far left and one on the top right, gaze towards the center of the image, bringing the focal point to that canvas area. The figure on the bottom right looks in two directions. Her nose points left, and her eyes look at the viewer. The interaction between those three figures can be seen as a series of invisible lines that form a triangle in the composition’s structure.

The diagram shows the triangle shape. It frames the focal point. There is also a leaf shape that is repeated on the canvas. In the diagram, it’s highlighted in green. The two leaf shapes at the bottom draw your focus to the faces of the other two women and the other two leaf shapes. The composition guides the viewer to look at an area with familiar depictions of women. However, the figures on the right are more visually stimulating.

The viewer wants to look more into those areas because of the nature of the details. This is another aspect of composition, so the change in detail can create a secondary focal point. The two competing focal points work with the theme. These women are sex workers, and the image creates a tension between what you are guided to look at and what you actually look at. Picasso was revealing his perspective through his use of composition here.

4. Guernica  

During the Spanish Civil War, the town of Guernica was bombed. This political image is Picasso’s perspective on the tragedy. It is a stylistic image full of abstraction. The detail is complex, but the image still has a balanced composition, so it isn’t messy or confusing. One of the ways that he balances those complex visuals is the absence of color. This adds simplicity to balance the complexity of the abstracted imagery.

The stylization is a strength because photographs of such horrors might be too much for the viewer. Picasso told the story through interesting aesthetics. It shows how vital the artist’s role can be in telling stories that can be too difficult to hear. The use of color also gives the image a respectful tone. Culturally, we associate some colors with certain emotions and practices.

The diagram above shows Guernica’s simplistic structure. When you look at this artwork and its use of light and shade, you notice the triangular structure. Inside the triangle, there is more light than shade. On the outside, the reverse is true. The simple pyramid shape balances the complex abstract visuals. Great composition involves balancing complexity with simplicity, and that’s what Picasso did.

Notice the diagonal lines in the top left and right corners. It creates depth in an image where the absence of shading makes the figures flat. Viewing this painting is like entering a room full of cardboard cutouts. The viewer is intrigued and listening to the story Picasso wanted to tell. It’s guiding them to learn about true horror, and Picasso’s skill stops them from looking away.

5. Girl Before a Mirror

If you want an image to have a perfectly balanced composition, then total symmetry will create that. Sadly, a totally symmetrical image can seem analytical and obvious. The viewer can immediately recognize the composition. Partial symmetry isn’t as noticeable, and it still creates a high level of balance. Mirrors are incredibly useful in a painting because they add symmetry, and their positioning and size can define the amount of symmetry. Its angle can create different options and variations in the symmetry it creates.

We have a side view of a woman looking in the mirror. The mirror shows her face as almost entirely symmetrical. The mirror is also angled to show a front view of the woman’s body. Abstraction allows for more choice in the level of symmetry that’s chosen.

The diagram above shows that the left vertical that frames the mirror is a symmetry line. You can see how effective it is at creating partial symmetry. However, in this image, it doesn’t automatically create balance. The composition is dominated by circles. In composition, curves are used to balance angles. Picasso knew this, so he used the background to create balance. The background is patterned with squares. The background contains angles, and the foreground is mainly curved, except for the two verticals that frame the mirror and the stripes that act as detail. The final painting is complex, so the composition needs to be strong. A simplistic image might be more forgiving but wouldn’t reveal his high skill level. Picasso was bold in his choices, and this image is full of pattern and color, yet it isn’t overwhelming.

6. Pablo Picasso’s Mandolin and Guitar 

The human mind constantly sees faces in the shapes created by various objects. This is a playful painting of a mandolin and a guitar. Still, we immediately see the face that is created by the combination of those objects. The face dominates the canvas. It looks directly at the viewer, demanding their attention. The color palette is also loud.

In the diagram above, the image is reduced to its basic structure. The three circles are the central part of the image, and their positioning forms a triangle on the canvas. That area is the focal point of the composition. This is a familiar composition structure. It has similarities with Les Demoiselles d’Avignon. The structure is created through lines that are in their most common position. They are either horizontal, vertical, or diagonal. The simplicity of color and the simplicity of the linework is designed to be attention-grabbing.

Arthur Schopenhauer was a prominent philosopher who pushed the boundaries of German Idealism to its full potential. Admirer and critical of Immanuel Kant, he revealed the true implications of the legacy of Kantian philosophy in ways that Kant himself did not foresee.

How Does Schopenhauer Compare the Real and the Ideal?

Realism and idealism are two contrasting philosophical perspectives. On the one hand, realism assumes that the world as we experience it is objective, meaning that it exists independently from our perception and cognition. It is the underlying philosophical assumption in the natural sciences. Idealism, on the other hand, holds that the world, as we experience it, is molded by our inherent cognitive structures. Hence, it distinguishes between the world as we experience it and the world in itself, known in Kantian philosophy as the phenomenon and noumenon, respectively. For adherents of this perspective, the ideal is the phenomenon and the real is the noumenon.  

Schopenhauer laments that “nothing is so persistently and constantly misunderstood as idealism, since it is interpreted as meaning that the empirical reality of the external world is denied”, as evident in Friedrich Jacobi’s criticism of Gottlieb Fichte’s idealist philosophy (Schopenhauer, 1818). Idealism, however, is not concerned with the empirical world itself, but rather with the many ways that our subjectivity conditions it, which is why idealism is best characterized as transcendental. In other words, idealism does not study the world itself, but the transcendental conditions that make our experience of the world possible. It does not deny empirical reality but repositions it as a subjective, rather than objective, reality and studies it as an ideal, or representation, as it appears to the subject. 

What Does Schopenhauer Say About Representation?

Schopenhauer starts his magnum opus, The World as Will and Representation, contending that “the world is my representation” (Schopenhauer, 1818). The world is conditioned by the subject in a twofold manner. Firstly, the world is materially conditioned by the subject, since an object exists only in relation to a subject, be it an object of knowledge or perception. As he explained, “everything that exists for knowledge, and hence the whole of this world, is only object in relation to the subject, perception of the perceiver, in a word, representation”. 

For instance, your perception of a flower is conditioned by your sense of sight and touch. The flower, as it appears to you, exists as an object only in relation to your senses as a perceiving subject. Although Schopenhauer points to an obvious and overly simple truth, namely that knowledge cannot exist independently from a knower, this truth is often overlooked in our ordinary experience, where we take our perceptions and knowledge at face value, disregarding our participation in forming them. 

Is it All in the Mind?

Secondly, the mode and manner with which the world is represented is conditioned by the structures of our cognition. As Kant explained in The Critique of Pure Reason, the way we experience the world is determined by the a priori structures of our cognitive faculties that shape and organize the information we receive through our senses. Kant proved that the defining characteristics of the world we experience, including time, space, and causality, are the results of the properties of our minds rather than the reality of the world.

Schopenhauer credits René Descartes’ cogito ergo sum (I think therefore I am) for establishing that the starting point of philosophy is within the subject, George Berkeley for establishing that objects are dependent on the subject, and Immanuel Kant for outlining the intricate mode and manner with which we condition our representation of the world. The world is presupposed by the subject, rendering it a mere ideal, appearance, or representation of reality.

How Does Schopenhauer Compare Consciousness with Dreaming?

The world is akin to a dream unfolding in, and determined by, our consciousness. Schopenhauer argued that the world must be recognized as such, for the same cognitive structures “that conjures up during sleep a perfectly objective, perceptible, and indeed palpable world must have just as large a share in the representation of the objective world of wakefulness” (Schopenhauer, 1818). 

Although materially different, the worlds of dreams and wakefulness are both shaped in the same way. Schopenhauer credits Vedanta philosophy as the earliest school of thought to recognize that the world has “no essence independent of mental perception; that existence and perceptibility are convertible terms” (Schopenhauer, 1818). He deems the assumption that the existence of the world is absolutely objective in itself as inconceivable and critiques realism as crude understanding, starting from an arbitrary assumption that “denies the first fact of all, namely that all that we know lies within consciousness” (Schopenhauer, 1818). 

The objects of the world are contents appearing in our consciousness. This does not mean that there is no world beyond our subjectivity, but that everything we know is an appearance within our consciousness. We cannot know the ‘thing-in-itself’, the world beyond our subjectivity, simply because we cannot step outside ourselves. 

What Does Schopenhauer See Beyond Dreaming?

While Kant believed that we cannot even begin to fathom what the noumenon world is like, Schopenhauer ventured to discover it. Although he had a deep reverence for Kant’s exposition of the intricacies of the phenomenal world, he argued that “Kant’s ‘thing-in-itself’ has unfortunately degenerated in his hands” (Schopenhauer, 1818). Strongly critical of Kant’s conception of the noumenon, Schopenhauer argued that we can have insight into the nature of the ‘thing in itself’ via introspection and by abstracting what our cognitive structures impose on what we perceive. For example, since we know that our perception of objects, time, space, and causality springs from ourselves and not the world, we can deduce that the world ‘in itself’ has neither objectivity, time, space, nor causality. 

But Schopenhauer goes even further than that and argues that the ‘thing in itself’ is Will. The will, according to him, is the blind, indifferent, irrational, and unconscious force that underlies the entire cosmos and sets it into motion. The world beyond our perception cannot consist of multiple objects. There can’t be perceptual flowers and flowers that transcend your perception, for the very existence of different objects is inherent to the structure of your perception itself. Instead, there is only one underlying will that expresses itself in the diverse manifold of objects we experience in the phenomenal world. As shocking as this sounds, how would you imagine a world entirely comprised of will?

Archaeology, the study of ancient human history through artifacts, structures, and landscapes, opens a window into the distant past. It reveals how societies lived, worshiped, built, and thrived, often dating back thousands of years to prehistoric and ancient civilizations. In the United States, archaeology gives you a glimpse into Native American history and early colonial life.

Sites like ancient earthen mounds and cliff dwellings date back millennia. They show the ingenuity and complexity of the cultures that shaped this land. These places, scattered across the country, are both historically significant and captivating destinations. For history buffs, adventurers, and culture enthusiasts, these ten must-see archaeological sites in the US offer a chance to explore the fascinating stories of the ancient past of America.

1. Cahokia Mounds, Illinois

Cahokia Mounds, located near Collinsville, Illinois, is the most extensive pre-Columbian archaeological site north of Mexico. Established around 700 CE, Cahokia flourished between 950 and 1350 CE, serving as the central hub of the Middle Mississippian culture. At its zenith, the city spanned approximately 4,000 acres, encompassing about 120 earthen mounds and housing a population nearing 20,000, surpassing London’s population at that time.

The site’s most prominent feature is Monks Mound, a massive earthen structure rising over 100 feet, covering nearly 15 acres at its base. This mound is the largest pre-Columbian earthwork in the Americas and served as the political and religious epicenter of Cahokia.

Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982, Cahokia Mounds offers you a glimpse into the ingenuity of its ancient builders. The site features an Interpretive Center with exhibits detailing the daily life, culture, and eventual decline of this prehistoric metropolis. You can explore over 5.4 miles of trails, ascend Monks Mound for panoramic views, and observe reconstructed structures like the Woodhenge, a timber circle believed to have been used for astronomical observations.

2. Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado

In southwestern Colorado lies Mesa Verde National Park, a breathtaking testament to the ingenuity and resilience of the Ancestral Pueblo people. This UNESCO World Heritage Site preserves nearly 5,000 archaeological treasures, including over 600 meticulously constructed cliff dwellings. These ancient structures, such as the renowned Cliff Palace, are carved into the rock faces of towering mesas and serve as a remarkable window into a civilization that thrived from 550 to 1300 CE.

When at Mesa Verde, make sure to explore the architectural brilliance of these dwellings on guided tours, climbing ladders, and navigating tunnels to reach sites like Balcony House and Long House. Beyond its historical significance, the park’s 52,000-acre expanse offers scenic trails, such as the Petroglyph Point Trail, where hikers can marvel at ancient rock carvings while taking in sweeping canyon views.

A trip to Mesa Verde isn’t complete without visiting the Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum, which houses artifacts like pottery, tools, and textiles alongside vivid displays that bring the past to life.

3. Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico

This UNESCO World Heritage Site, lying in the vast expanse of New Mexico’s desert, was once a vibrant cultural and ceremonial center. It showcases the civilization of the Ancestral Puebloan people that thrived over a thousand years ago, leaving behind monumental achievements in architecture, astronomy, and engineering.

Unlike other ancient settlements, Chaco’s legacy is defined by its remarkable great houses, such as the renowned Pueblo Bonito. These massive stone structures, some reaching four stories high, were meticulously designed with hundreds of rooms and ceremonial kivas. What sets Chaco apart is the precise alignment of these buildings with solar and lunar cycles, reflecting an unparalleled understanding of the cosmos.

The Chacoans also constructed an extensive network of roads, stretching across the desert for hundreds of miles, connecting distant communities with the heart of Chaco. These straight paths, built with purpose and precision, reveal the strategic importance of the region as a hub of trade, culture, and knowledge.

Make sure to wander through the sprawling ruins of Chetro Ketl, peer into the massive kiva at Casa Rinconada, or trek to Fajada Butte, home to the mysterious Sun Dagger, a celestial marker that once tracked the passage of time with remarkable accuracy. At night, the park transforms into one of the most awe-inspiring stargazing locations in the world, its pristine skies offering a view of the cosmos that connects past and present.

4. Serpent Mound, Ohio

Serpent Mound in Adams County is the world’s largest surviving effigy mound, a prehistoric earthwork in the shape of a serpent. Stretching approximately 1,348 feet in length, this ancient structure winds gracefully atop a plateau overlooking Ohio Brush Creek. Its origins remain a subject of scholarly debate, with estimates placing its construction between 1000 BCE and 1070 CE.

The mound’s precise purpose is unknown, but its design suggests significant ceremonial or cosmological importance.

When you visit Serpent Mound, you’ll learn a lot about ancient Native American cultures. The site features a museum with exhibits detailing the mound’s history and the archaeological findings from the area. A walking path allows you to view the effigy from various angles, and an observation tower provides an elevated perspective of the serpent’s full form.

5. Poverty Point, Louisiana

This prehistoric earthwork complex constructed by indigenous peoples between 1700 and 1100 BCE is found in northeastern Louisiana. It’s a UNESCO World Heritage Site encompassing a series of concentric earthen ridges and mounds, including the massive Mound A, which stands 72 feet tall. The site’s design and scale suggest it served as a significant ceremonial and trade center, with artifacts indicating extensive trade networks reaching as far as the Great Lakes and the Appalachian foothills.

When you head to Poverty Point, you will witness the ancient ridges and mounds via walking trails or guided tram tours. The on-site museum offers exhibits featuring artifacts such as pottery, tools, and jewelry, providing insights into the daily lives and sophisticated culture of its builders. Interpretive programs and special events further enrich the experience.

6. The Effigy Mounds, Iowa

Effigy Mounds National Monument, located in northeastern Iowa along the Mississippi River, preserves over 200 prehistoric mounds built by Native American cultures between 500 BCE and 1300 CE. Among these, 31 are effigy mounds shaped like animals, including bears and birds, reflecting the builders’ spiritual beliefs and connection to nature.

These mounds hold deep cultural significance for many Native American tribes, serving as sacred spaces and burial sites. The monument’s landscape offers insight into the ceremonial and social practices of the Woodland period, highlighting the sophisticated mound-building traditions of the time.

You’ll have the chance to explore 14 miles of hiking trails that wind through diverse ecosystems, including forests, prairies, and wetlands. The trails provide access to various mounds, such as the prominent Great Bear Mound, measuring 42 meters from head to tail. The visitor center features exhibits on the archaeological and natural history of the area, offering a comprehensive understanding of the site’s importance.

7. Fort Ancient, Ohio

Perched atop a wooded bluff overlooking the Little Miami River in Warren County, Ohio, Fort Ancient Earthworks & Nature Preserve stands as a monumental testament to the engineering prowess and ceremonial practices of the Hopewell culture. Constructed between 100 BCE and 400 CE, this expansive site encompasses approximately 100 acres, featuring an extensive network of earthen walls stretching over 18,000 feet, interspersed with 84 openings, and accompanied by mounds and ditches.

The precise purpose of Fort Ancient remains a subject of scholarly debate. While its elevated position and extensive earthworks might suggest a defensive role, the internal placement of ditches and numerous gateways indicate it likely served as a ceremonial and social gathering place.

Learn about the rich history of the site through the 9,000-square-foot museum that showcases artifacts spanning 15,000 years of Native American heritage in the Ohio Valley. The museum features exhibits on the Adena, Hopewell, and Fort Ancient cultures.

The surrounding nature preserve boasts miles of hiking trails that meander through diverse landscapes, including woodlands, prairies, and river vistas. Notable paths include the Mound Trail, which guides you past secluded mounds, and a trail leading to the southern lookout, believed to be the ancient entry point for visitors arriving by boat on the Little Miami River.

In recognition of its cultural and historical significance, Fort Ancient, along with other Hopewell Ceremonial Earthworks, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2023.

8. Montezuma Castle, Arizona

Located near Camp Verde in central Arizona, Montezuma Castle National Monument preserves a remarkable example of pre-Columbian cliff dwellings. Constructed by the Sinagua people around 1100 CE, this five-story, 20-room structure is nestled into a limestone cliff approximately 80 feet above the valley floor. Despite its name, the dwelling has no connection to the Aztec emperor Montezuma; early settlers mistakenly attributed its construction to the Aztecs, leading to the misnomer.

The Sinagua, whose name means “without water” in Spanish, were adept at thriving in the arid environment of the Verde Valley. They constructed the cliff dwelling using local materials, including limestone and mud, creating a structure that has withstood the test of time. The elevated position of the dwelling provided protection from floods and potential invaders while also offering a vantage point over the surrounding area.

In 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt designated Montezuma Castle as one of the nation’s first National Monuments under the Antiquities Act.

When you head to the Montezuma Castle National Monument, you’ll be able to view the impressive cliff dwelling from a paved loop trail at its base. The on-site museum offers exhibits on the Sinagua culture, showcasing artifacts such as pottery, tools, and textiles that provide insights into their daily lives and craftsmanship. Additionally, the monument includes Montezuma Well, a natural limestone sinkhole that was also utilized by the Sinagua for irrigation and as a water source.

9. Jamestown, Virginia

Jamestown, established in 1607 on the banks of Virginia’s James River, holds the distinction of being the first permanent English settlement in North America. This historic site offers profound insights into the early colonial era, marked by the settlers’ interactions with Indigenous populations, the introduction of African labor, and the nascent stages of American democracy.

The Jamestown Rediscovery Project, initiated in 1994, has been pivotal in unearthing the original James Fort, long believed to have been lost to river erosion. Archaeologists have since uncovered a wealth of artifacts, including personal items, tools, and remnants of early structures, shedding light on the daily lives and challenges faced by the colonists.

When you’re in Historic Jamestowne, you’ll witness archaeology in action, exploring the remains of James Fort and engaging with ongoing excavations. The Archaearium museum showcases over 4,000 artifacts, providing a tangible connection to the 17th-century settlers. Guided tours and interactive programs further enrich the experience, offering diverse perspectives on the site’s multifaceted history.

10. Moundville Archaeological Park, Alabama

Moundville Archaeological Park, located near Tuscaloosa, Alabama, preserves one of the most significant Native American heritage sites in the United States. Between 1000 and 1450 CE, Moundville was a thriving political and ceremonial center for the Mississippian culture, second in size and complexity only to Cahokia in Illinois.

The 326-acre park features 29 massive flat-topped earthen mounds arranged around a central plaza. These mounds served as platforms for civic and ceremonial structures and the residences of the society’s elite. The site’s layout reflects a highly organized society with sophisticated social, political, and religious systems.

When there, you can explore the well-preserved mounds and learn about the Mississippian culture through various exhibits and programs. The Jones Archaeological Museum showcases artifacts such as pottery, tools, and ornaments, providing insights into the daily lives and artistry of the Moundville inhabitants. The park also offers nature trails, a campground, and hosts events like the annual Moundville Native American Festival, celebrating the rich heritage of Southeastern Native American cultures.

Across the 24 books of Homer’s Iliad, the epic account of Achilles’ wrath at the siege of Troy, there are 240 battlefield deaths. Whether by sword or spear, an average of ten combatants perish per book. What then, of the god responsible for leading these men to the underworld? While many are familiar with Hades, the ruler of the underworld, the Greek god of death itself, Thanatos, is much less well-known. From Homer to Hesiod, and from the ancient stage to the modern canvas, there is a rich mythology to this morbid and minor deity.

Who Are the Parents of the Greek God Thanatos

Perhaps Thanatos’ lack of wider cultural familiarity stems from his lacking the mythological aristocracy of Hades, the other deity associated with the dead. The latter was the brother of Zeus, the ruler of the skies and lord of the gods, and of Poseidon, the god of the seas. He was also the oldest of these three sons of the Titans, Cronus and Rhea. His status as the eldest meant that he had the misfortune of being the last to be regurgitated by their murderous father.

In contrast, Thanatos had no father. According to the Theogony of Hesiod, a poem from the 8th century BCE that outlines ancient Greek cosmology and the genealogies of the gods and goddesses, Thanatos was the son of Nyx, the goddess or personification of Night. His brother was the god of Sleep, Hypnos.

As befitting his role as the god of death, the portrait of Thanatos and account of his extended genealogy in Hesiod is rather macabre: “awful gods… the glowing Sun never looks upon them…” He is unloved even by his fellow gods. His character is similarly grimly recounted. He has a heart of iron and an immutable, pitiless spirit. Once he has grasped a man, there can be no escape. Despite this, he was not the least agreeable of the gods of death in Greek mythology. In some accounts, Thanatos is the god of peaceful death, while those who face a violent end are carried away by the bloodthirsty Keres, female death spirits.

Thanatos’ other siblings included several negative personifications, including Geras (Old Age), Oizys (Suffering), Nemesis (Retribution), and Moros (Doom). In Hesiod, he is also closely associated with the Three Fates, as they are also the daughters of Nyx and technically siblings. Of these three deities, he is most closely associated with Atropos, who was also a goddess of death.

Death Cheated: Thanatos and Sisyphus

Despite his apparent immovable character and merciless spirit, there are episodes throughout Greek mythology where the wiliest characters—both human and immortal—were able, for a brief time, to trick the god of death. The most famous of these was the notoriously cunning King of Corinth, Sisyphus, who actually managed the feat twice! In the first instance, Thanatos had been sent to take Sisyphus to the underworld, where he would be chained up in Tartarus. This was to be the king of Corninth’s punishment for betraying the confidence of Aegina to her father, the river god Asopus, who rewarded Sisyphus by causing a spring to flow from the Corinthian Acropolis.

Thanatos then fell for the oldest trick in the book, though, to his credit, it was perhaps less old at this time. Sisyphus asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains in Tartarus worked and so trapped the god of death in his place. Soon, there was chaos on earth. While death being unable to fulfill his duty would have been good news for the mortals, Ares, the god of war, was sent into a rage; the battles he orchestrated were now futile. Releasing Thanatos from his embarrassing bind, he turned Sisyphus over to the god of death once more.

Not content with foiling Thanatos once, Sisyphus would have a second opportunity. Again, the Corinthian king escaped the underworld, but this time, he convinced Persephone, the wife of Hades, that he had not received a proper burial from his wife. Released from the underworld, he returned to his wife and scolded her for her lack of respect. Again, however, Sisyphus refused to return to the realm of the dead. Hermes, the messenger god, was compelled to retrieve Sisyphus and drag him back to the underworld. There, he was consigned to his eternal torture. Sisyphus was ordered to roll an enormous boulder to the top of a steep hill in Tartarus. However, upon reaching the summit, the boulder, bewitched by Hades, would roll back to the bottom once more. Sisyphus’ labor would begin once again, and go on forever and ever.

Character Building: Thanatos in Greek Literature

The account of Thanatos being deceived by Sisyphus is known from a fragment of a poem by Alcaeus, which was composed in the 6th century BCE. Along with this fragment and Hesiod’s Theogony, the god of death also appears elsewhere in ancient Greek literature. This includes Homer’s Iliad. Although Thanatos is less prominent than perhaps might be expected in a work in which so many warriors are killed, he does feature once. The god of death and his brother Hypnos are charged by Zeus in book 16 to deliver the fallen hero Sarpedon to his homeland in Lycia.

Perhaps the other most famous encounter with Thanatos in Greek literature occurs in the Alecestis. Written by the Athenian playwright Euripides, the play defies easy categorization as tragedy or comedy and was first performed at the City Dionysia festival in 438 BCE. The crux of the play is Admetus, the king of Pherai (Thessaly), and his quest to cheat death. His wife, Alcestis, offers up her life so that her husband can go on living.

During the play, Admetus is visited by Herakles, who is received as an honored guest in the king’s palace. In recompense for the king’s hospitality, Herakles offers to confront death on behalf of his host, thus sparing not only the king but also winning back Alcestis. Sure enough, when Thanatos emerges from Hades to claim the king’s wife, he is seized by Herakles and overpowered. Alecestis is returned and, embarrassed and empty-handed, Thanatos flees.

Playing at Death: Thanatosis

Etymology is the study of the origin of words. Often, especially in European languages, the roots of many words can be found in the ancient world, including the Greek and Latin languages. The myths from these ancient cultures have also supplied modern societies with a host of words, phrases, and idioms. This includes Thanatos. From the same ancient Greek root verb, Thnesko (meaning “I die”) that the name Thanatos derives, there is the term “Thanatosis.” Also referred to as “apparent death” or perhaps more commonly as “playing dead,” thanatosis refers to the behavior in the animal kingdom where an animal will take on the appearance of being dead, often to confuse or put off a potential predator. However, some creatures will use thantosis with more devious intentions in mind, such as to lure potential prey even closer.

Perhaps the most well-known example of thantosis in the animal kingdom is that of the opossum. These mammals, native to North America, will resort to playing dead to avoid predators and other threats. However, this can often backfire when they adopt this strategy in the face of oncoming traffic. The behavior of thanatosis is so commonly associated with opossums that it has actually spawned the idiomatic phrase “to play possum,” meaning to play dead.

Thanatos in Modern Culture: Greek God of Death Re-imagined

Despite his relatively minor role in ancient Greek mythology, Thanatos has enjoyed a rich and varied afterlife in modern cultures. Even in antiquity, the god featured on the reverse of coins minted in Thrace and Moesia in the Roman Empire. Suitably, the god of death was paired with rather bloodthirsty emperors, including Caracalla.

Extending beyond the etymological developments and the behaviors of animals, the ancient Greek god of death has been incorporated into psychology. Although not named explicitly as such by Sigmund Freud, in the psychologist’s theories, “Thanatos” is the name given to the human “death drive.” This is the counterweight to the “life instinct,” which is similarly named after a figure from Classical mythology: Eros, the god of love. The death drive, in this psychological conceptualization, is the part of the human mind that drives people into risky, self-destructive acts.

Thanatos has also been reimagined on canvases and other artistic media throughout the centuries. The idea of the god of death has been presented in a variety of styles, from more abstract compositions to those that are more obviously rooted in the Classical tradition. This includes the work of the Pre-Raphaelite painter John William Waterhouse.

Notable for his works depicting scenes of Greek mythology and Arthurian legend, the British painter of the 19th century produced Sleep and His Half-Brother Death in 1874. The oil on canvas work shows the two Greek gods side-by-side, resting. The figure in the foreground, Hypnos, is shown in light, while his brother, Thanatos, is somewhat obscured by the shade. The use of light here reflects the attitudes to the two deities that had been enshrined since antiquity. Waterhouse’s choice of subject was perhaps motivated by personal tragedy. Prior to the exhibition of this painting, his younger brothers had both died of tuberculosis.

Beyond psychology classes and museums, modern audiences are perhaps most familiar with Thanatos from the big screen. The ancient Greek god of death, through his incorporation into Freudian psychology, became the inspiration for the Marvel Comics villain, Thanos. Debuting in 1973, the villain’s most famous story arc concerns his attempts to woo “Mistress Death” (the goddess of death in the Marvel universe) by collecting all six infinity stones and using them to kill half of the universe’s population.

The journey from Hesiod to Marvel is perhaps a surprising one, but, to paraphrase the comic book villain, it was inevitable. Thanatos, the ancient Greek god of death, will continue to be re-imagined and remain culturally relevant, despite his macabre destiny.

The viewer is always rewarded when they look at Salvador Dalí’s artwork. Society could label him a genius and cease to look further. It would be easy to lose sight of how he created his masterpieces. However, exploring his techniques doesn’t remove the magnificence of what he achieved. It merely allows us to appreciate his work through a different lens.

1. Salvador Dali’s Metamorphosis of Narcissus

Dalí was a Surrealist, so his works are full of the weird imagery you could find in a dream. If we look at the positioning of the color blue here, we can see that it stretches across the top of the canvas. That blue must be balanced. The easiest way to do this is by adding a line of blue to the bottom of the image. That symmetry in the positioning would immediately create balance. It’s clear that Dalí understood this because he places blue in the bottom left, and then instead of adding blue to the bottom right, he adds green—another cool color. This suggests that instead of isolating a single color, he viewed them as warm and cold colors. In this image, he grouped them to create a balanced composition.

The diagram above reduces the composition to its basic structure. Two shapes repeat—these are highlighted in green. That repetition balances both sides of the canvas because you have the same structure on both sides of the image. However, you don’t have the same details. Dalí could have altered the shape of the person sitting in the lake and made the repetition less obvious, but he wasn’t aiming for subtlety. He wanted the viewer to see the structure. If he were repeating a simple shape, that technique would make the image seem basic, obvious, and minimal. The shape highlighted in green certainly isn’t basic, so we see the repetition of something complex, which creates an interesting painting.

2. Mountain Lake

The cool colors dominate the image. There are places where highlights of warmth have been added to the canvas. Warm colors are balanced by cold colors. However, this tilt towards muted colors doesn’t make the composition unbalanced. Dali was creating an emotional feel for the image. The colors are muted, so they are quiet on the canvas. The imagery shows the handset to a phone, but it isn’t connected.

There is synchronicity between the color and the imagery. Dalí has created a composition where every aspect works towards the same objective. The ideal balance for a composition isn’t the same for every painting. When the artist wants to convey meaning, they must select a finished composition that works towards their objective. Dalí constantly adapted the composition to fit the narrative he was trying to convey.

The diagram simplifies the painting to its basic structure. The main detail in the image occurs inside the space indicated by the purple lines. The structure has a wave motion to it. Those curves balance the horizontal lines. There isn’t much detail in the top half of the image. That space helps to convey the silence that’s depicted in the work. Dalí understood that space at the top of the image creates a successful composition. This is true when you’re using a landscape format canvas. On a portrait format canvas, a composition is often improved when the space is on the bottom part of the canvas.

3. Birth of Liquid Desires

This painting is a good example of how Dalí balanced realistic elements and abstract forms. Surrealism relied on abstraction but did not fit into that category. The figures are depicted realistically, but the abstract forms are more dominant in this image than they are in a lot of his other artwork.

It’s documented that the large yellow form has a shape that is similar to a musical instrument or some of the weathered rocks in eastern Spain. Dalí was fascinated with William Tell, which suggests the abstract shape is an apple, and the figure on the left enters the apple like a worm. Through abstraction, an object can have multiple properties and meanings.

In the previous images we looked at, we could do a composition analysis in isolation of the story behind the work, but in this case, we need to know what the William Tell story represents for Dalí. Lucy Flint wrote that William Tell represented for the artist the archetypal theme of paternal assault. The subject occurs frequently in his paintings from 1929 when he entered into a liaison with Gala Eluard against his father’s wishes.

At first glance, the image has a weak composition. That central figure and that dark abstract form in the top right completely change what would be a serene composition. A peaceful blue sky with elegant curves and horizontal ground. Notice the two squares in the diagram. Dalí makes the disruptive elements the focal point because it’s everything from one square to another. This aesthetically imperfect composition tells Dalí’s story perfectly.

4. The Persistence of Memory

The Persistence of Memory is the most famous work by Salvador Dalí. The focal point of the image is the three melting clocks. Notice their placement. Drawing a line from one to the other would form the shape of a triangle. The positioning has a simple structure, so we see them as a group. One of the clocks has a metallic gold rim, and the others have a silver rim.

Dali chose his colors carefully. The gold rim of the clock is the same color as the mountains on the top right. Diagonally, it ties together those two parts of the canvas. The silver is placed diagonally in the opposite direction. This diagonal position of color makes the composition more cohesive. If all the clocks had the same colors, the image would have a weaker composition.

The diagram shows a simplified version of the composition. The triangle illustrates the positioning of the clocks. This is the main focal point in the painting. The blue oval represents the closed clock covered with insects. The viewer will look at this part of the image because the colors and detail differ from everything else on the canvas, making the object stand out. The object doesn’t cause imbalance because it’s next to the edge of the box. A line that immediately takes the viewer’s eyes back up to the clocks. The viewer can look at the mountains on the top left, and their shape will point them back to the clocks. The diagram has a purple line that highlights the curve of detail that points toward the main focus point, the triangle of clocks.

5. The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory

Years later, Dalí returned to the imagery of The Persistence of Memory and created another image called The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory. It shares a lot of the symbolism of the original image. The composition has been adapted to create something new. The curve of the bottom of the lake separates the upper part of the image. The blocks are in the lower part of the image. In between is a gap, and the clock in the center is the main focal point. The canvas is separated into three areas, a composition different from The Persistence of Memory. If you look at this work with The Persistence of Memory in mind, it will challenge your expectations.

The diagram shows how the composition from The Persistence of Memory has been adapted to support the new composition used in The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory. The colors highlight the same elements as the previous diagram. The clocks are highlighted in green, and their positioning is indicated by a red line. The clocks flow in a line from the top of the image. The curve highlighted by the purple line is still present. Those lines cross at the main focal point, the central clock. His composition in The Persistence of Memory has been altered to support the new focal point. It’s slightly less impactful because it loses the triangular structure that framed the focal point in the first painting. Still, it’s a sophisticated composition executed with great skill.

6. Salvador Dali’s Apparition of Face and Fruit Dish on a Beach

The surrealist style allowed Dalí to pick and combine various things in any way he chose. However, that freedom is only possible if you have the skill to integrate them successfully and Dalí certainly had the necessary skills. He needed to see everything as a shape and how those shapes combine. In an image of a face and a dish, he would’ve needed to consider the similarities and differences between the shape of a face and a bowl. Then, he needed to capture and portray that relationship in his artwork.

The diagram reduces the composition to its basic structure. The objects on the left are slightly diagonal, parallel to the surface’s edge on the canvas’s right side. The green lines show how the painting includes the structure of a parallelogram. Incorporating basic shapes into the structure does improve the composition. The blue highlights a curved line that travels from the left to the right of the image. It’s a prominent aspect of the structure. Shaping the objects in this way balances both sides of the canvas. The face is the main focal point because that’s where the blue line dips on the canvas. Elsewhere, it is high in the image. The bottom of the face is also surrounded by space, leading the viewer to focus on that area.

The term chiaroscuro appeared in the 17th century and referred to a sharp contrast between highlights and shadows in painted and printed compositions. Renaissance artists manipulated the tones of shadows and highlights to create illusions of depth inside their painted spaces. Although particularly popular in the Baroque era, the chiaroscuro effect continued to thrive well into the modern era and became useful for early filmmakers. Read on to learn more about the chiaroscuro technique and the artists who mastered it.

What Is the Chiaroscuro Technique?

Chiaroscuro is an artistic effect that creates depth and complexity in a painted scene by using contrasting planes of light and dark tone, usually in the form of highlights and shadows. Chiaroscuro manipulates the values of light and dark in order to give extra depth to the painted scenes, adding realistic nuance and complexity. Over the years, dramatic contrast was used by Renaissance artists, particularly those working in the styles of Baroque and Mannerism. The concept of chiaroscuro is still present in contemporary art, especially in the works of artists who are inspired by Renaissance-era art and who adapt it to present-day norms and expectations.

The term became widely used in the late 17th century in both its Italian and French versions, known as Clair-obscur, meaning clear-concealed. Originally, the term chiaroscuro was used for woodcut prints that were created with several different-colored blocks. Each block covered different fragments of the image, giving it tonal variety. Gradually, the term developed extra meanings and became applicable to the painted work with contrasting light and shadow.

Leonardo da Vinci

Before the Baroque era, the undoubted master of the chiaroscuro technique was none other than Leonardo da Vinci, the Renaissance polymath. Leonardo was a thoughtful and careful artist who worked extremely slowly and rarely even finished his works. For that reason, the list of his surviving paintings is relatively short, and nearly every entry concerns art experts as a possible forgery or misattribution.

Leonardo was not only a painter but an art theoretician who described various types of shadows in his Treatise on Painting. However, as noted by the famous art historian Ernst Gombrich, in his painted works Leonardo da Vinci treated light and shadow contrast in a manner different from that described in the treatise.

Leonardo paid extraordinary attention to the color value of his works so that the contrast would be harmonious. The dark background of his works is never simply dark—it is created with various tones of black and brown to create the realistic illusion of depth. He also preferred sharp contrasting forms to lingering transitions. He was the master of sfumato—a painting technique of softly blending contrasting fields of color into smoke-like transitions.

Chiaroscuro & Baroque

Chiaroscuro was extremely popular in the era of Baroque art. Baroque was partially a political decision heavily promoted by the Catholic Church. After the Protestant Reformation movement exposed the Church’s abuse of power, manipulation, and enormous accumulated wealth, the Catholics needed to fire back. Instead of refuting the obvious claims, they decided to double down on them by investing even more funds into the art and architecture of churches. While Protestantism appealed to reason, the Catholics relied on emotion. Baroque art was deliberately dramatic, often gruesome, and evoked compassion and empathy. Theatrical scenes of saints’ martyrdom were supposed to trigger fear, sympathy, and admiration for those who endured such suffering for their faith.

Baroque used contrasting light and expressive shadow to set the stage for dramatic and expressive scenes of devotion and suffering. The undoubted masters of this technique were Caravaggio, Orazio, and Artemisia Gentileschi. Later, it was adopted by late-stage Baroque artists known as Mannerists. Mannerism turned the expressive potential of Baroque to the maximum, manipulating not only light and shadow but also form and silhouette.

Spanish Baroque: Caravaggio’s Legacy in Naples

The most intense contrast of light and shadow can be found in the works of Spanish Baroque masters. At that time, Naples was a Spanish territory that was a safe haven for those who were wanted for crimes in the various Italian city-states. One such fugitive was Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. His great artistic talent was accompanied by an equally problematic personality and violent character. After a duel went horribly wrong and ended with the death of Caravaggio’s opponent, an heir to an affluent family, he was forced to flee to Naples. There, he started taking commissions and influenced a group of local artists who then spread his style to other Spanish cities.

Caravaggio was known for his careful rendering of lights and shadows and the chiaroscuro effect. He carefully planned the positions of invisible light sources on his paintings and manipulated tones to create the most convincing illusions. Many of his works were site-specific, commissioned for particular locations such as churches or private areas, and thus had to consider their spatial nuances.

In the hands of Spanish artists, Caravaggio’s methods became even more emotionally intense. Spanish Baroque painting was famous for the overwhelmingly intense contrasts and gory subject matter. In the theatrical lighting of chiaroscuro, scenes of violence and torture became extremely tense, with distorted faces and streams of blood immediately capturing the audience’s attention.

A notable segment of the Spanish Baroque painters were the students of Caravaggio, known as Caravaggisti. Not all of them have studied directly from the master, learning his principles from the finished works in Naples. The long list included the famous Jusepe de Ribera, an outstanding Spanish artist known for his violent scenes, and the alleged leader of the murderous Cabal of Naples. Francisco de Zurbaran preferred more peaceful subjects such as monks and saints but nonetheless employed Caravaggio’s principles. Later, chiaroscuro was successfully employed by Diego Velazquez, Francisco Goya, and other famous painters of his era.

Tenebrism vs Chiaroscuro

Tenebrism is an art historical term that is often confused with chiaroscuro. Tenebrism, originating from the Italian word tenebroso (meaning dark or menacing), also relied on the contrast between lights and darks. However, it had less nuance in it. While chiaroscuro focuses on creating depth and volume by manipulating tones and shadows, tenebrism simplifies the equation by completely covering the background with intense black. Tenebrist paintings tend to be extremely impressive at first glance but unlike nuanced chiaroscuro, this dramatic effect soon wears out and seizes to surprise the viewer.

Tenebrism is usually considered a specific case of chiaroscuro, often found in the works of Caravaggio, Jusepe de Ribera, Tintoretto, and other Renaissance masters. It is less versatile and usually works only to highlight a specifically dramatic scene unfolding at the center of the composition. The deep, dark space behind the figures puts them in a spotlight and frames the crucial aspects of the scene.

Rubens & Rembrandt

A conversation on Baroque technical mastery is impossible without mentioning the two famous artists of Flemish and Dutch origin. Peter Paul Rubens, the greatest of Flemish painters, employed chiaroscuro to enhance the dynamism of his scenes and add volume to his figures. In his rendering of human faces, chiaroscuro was a valuable instrument to demonstrate the character and personality of his models.

If Caravaggio was the master of dark backgrounds and lurking shadows, Rembrandt van Rijn dominated light. Soft yet contrasting, it gave a surprising mystical glow to his works, which continue to mesmerize audiences. Rembrandt was especially celebrated for his group portraits, in which he managed to maintain focus on many figures at once so that they remained clearly recognizable and retained their own individualities. Chiaroscuro was a valuable instrument in achieving such an effect and arranging the composition.

Chiaroscuro Technique in Modern Era: Silent Film and Dramatic Contrasts

In the modern era, chiaroscuro continued to be used in art, yet it received significantly less attention from artists and critics. However, this method made a surprising comeback in the creative domain that could appreciate the richness of dark tones as none other. The play of shadows became a popular expressive method in silent black-and-white films. Given the absence of sound and color, which are the principal expressive means in present-day films, directors and set designers had to manipulate shades of gray and black to build emotionally charged settings for their works.

Legendary films like Fritz Lang’s Metropolis used light and shadow contrast to highlight the mood and the conceptual nature of each scene. In the imaginary dystopia, the upper classes live in luxurious skyscrapers, while the working class serves them underground, giving their lives to the machines that power the city. The contrast of light and shadow indicates the dramatic difference between the lives of the privileged who pass in the bright lights of tropical gardens and spacious apartments, and the day-to-day struggle of the poor, who never see sunlight.

For millennia, Afghanistan has been a land inhospitable to invading armies. In ancient times, Alexander the Great struggled to pacify the people there amid the rugged terrain, while more recently, both the Soviets and the Americans failed miserably in achieving their aims, eventually losing to a nation with no significant military to speak of.

Thus, Afghanistan has been labeled “The Graveyard of Empires.” Not even the most powerful nations on Earth have managed to subdue the people who live in its lands of mountainous deserts.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Afghan people went to war three times against the British Empire.

These are known as the Anglo-Afghan Wars.

British and Russian Expansion

By the early 19th century, the British East India Company had expanded its control throughout India and had become the dominant military power in the region. Britain, however, wasn’t the only colonial power vying for control. The Russian Empire was also undergoing a period of expansion, and the Russians were pushing their borders southwards.

Of prime concern was the Russian desire for a warm-water port with access to the Indian Ocean. If Russia were to obtain such a prize, British interests in the region would become hampered. Another concern was control over the Khyber Pass, which formed a vital link for trade between Afghanistan and British India. From a military perspective, it was a gateway through which the Russians could potentially invade British India.

This fear was largely caused by a misunderstanding of Tsar Nicholas I’s intentions. The British viewed him as an expansionist, but the tsar’s biggest goal was to limit British power on the continent. He viewed the liberal democracy that Britain had as a threat to the stability and status quo of Europe.

Afghanistan served as a route for the Russians to achieve this, and thus, it attracted a lot of attention. The British wanted control of it to ruin any Russian plans of expansion.

The Afghans had problems of their own. They were in a state of conflict with the Sikh Empire, which had taken many lands from Afghan control and thus sought help from the British. The British, however, were not interested in any formal alliance with Afghanistan. Dost Mohammad Khan, the dost, or ruler, of Afghanistan, proposed such an alliance in 1837. The request was initially denied, but a British delegation was sent to Kabul under the auspices of an alliance. The real reason for the delegation was that of a fact-finding mission to discover the extent of Russian involvement in Afghanistan.

Jan Vitkevich, a man claiming to be a Russian envoy, was present in the court in Kabul, and this sent alarm bells ringing amongst the British. Vitkevich’s authority, however, was subsequently found to be spurious, and he committed suicide under mysterious circumstances.

Nevertheless, the British realized they had to be proactive about denying the Russians any influence in the region. The dost met with Vitkevich and leaked the details to the British. Upon discovery that the Russians seemingly intended to establish a diplomatic mission, he tried to push the British into an alliance.

The British, however, did not respond favorably. In October 1838, Viceroy Auckland, Governor-General of India, ordered the invasion of Afghanistan with the intention of deposing Dost Mohammad in favor of Shah Shuja, whom they wished to place on the throne.

The First Anglo-Afghan War

In the Spring of 1839, an army of 21,000 British and Indian troops entered Afghanistan under the command of Sir John Keane. The terrain was difficult, but the army made progress and didn’t encounter much resistance. The British took the city of Kandahar, and then prepared to march on Kabul.

The first real obstacle was taking Ghazni Fort, which stood in the way of Kabul. After laying siege, the fort eventually fell to the British, and they continued to Kabul, where they arrived victorious and deposed the dost.

The army then turned its attention to the town of Khelat. The Baluchi Khans of this area had constantly attacked British supply lines, and the British retaliated, capturing the town and installing a garrison before returning to India.

In Kabul, however, British control was not accepted by the populace. They had also overestimated support for Shah Shuja, which surprised the British, who had expected to restore stability to Afghanistan. The British attempted to control the situation and cut financial support to local rulers. Violence erupted in the city, and the British garrison outnumbered and under serious threat, fled the city and established a camp nearby.

The unrest then escalated into a full-blown revolt led by Muhammad Akbar Khan, Dost Mohammad Khan’s son. British envoys were murdered, and realizing their precarious situation, the British forces sought a way out of Afghanistan. They negotiated a withdrawal with the promise of an escort out of the country as well as supplies.

These failed to materialize, and in January 1842, the garrison of 4,500 troops and over 10,000 camp followers trekked through the Afghan wilderness. They were subjected to constant attacks from Afghan soldiers as well as brutally cold weather. At Gandamak Pass, the army was completely wiped out.

The use of jezails—long-barreled muskets designed for sniping—gave the Afghans an edge. British soldiers were only armed with muskets that had only half the range capability of jezails.

Only one British man managed to escape: Dr. William Brydon. The rest were killed or captured, with many of the soldiers and camp followers ending up in the slave markets in Kabul.

The British still held Jalalabad Fort, and with many hostages, including wives, in Kabul, a relief force was organized to rescue them. The forces still at Jalalabad, under the command of Major-General Sir Robert Sale, were joined by the “Army of Retribution” under the command of Major-General George Pollock.

They reached Kabul and rescued 95 hostages before returning home. It was decided that Afghanistan was, at this moment, far too inhospitable to make any occupation worthwhile. The British venture had been a complete failure, but it didn’t stop them from trying to stamp their boot on Afghanistan several decades later.

Buildup to The Second Anglo-Afghan War

After their ignominious defeat, the British released Dost Mohammad, and he returned to rule Afghanistan. Despite Afghan victory, the Afghans were wary of provoking the British and were, therefore, not receptive to any Russian influence. After his death in 1863, Dost Mohammad was succeeded by his son, Sher Ali Khan.

Ali Khan was ousted by his brother Mohammad Afzal Khan, precipitating a civil war. Ali Khan emerged triumphant and regained the throne in 1868.

The decades following the First Anglo-Afghan War saw increased Russian presence in the North. The Russian Empire continued to expand its borders, swallowing up city-states and moving its border closer to Afghanistan until it was all that remained between British and Russian territory. These two great powers continued to face off in their political maneuverings in what became known as “The Great Game” as they concentrated their strategic efforts on outwitting each other. Still a central piece to this “game” was the issue of Afghanistan.

In Britain, Benjamin Disraeli became Prime Minister in 1874, and he was willing to take military risks. Once again, Britain’s confidence in dealing with Afghanistan and Russian expansion would come to a head. The new Viceroy of India, Robert Lytton, began issuing demands from Ali Khan, first demanding that Britain must choose his successor, and later a list of changes to the Afghan government that would turn Afghanistan into essentially a state within the British Empire.

Ali Khan was furious and rejected these terms, stating his desire to remain neutral in the political battles between Britain and Russia. With this rejection, Lytton, in a show of bellicose rhetoric, declared that Afghanistan was “an earthen pipkin between two metal pots.” Several years passed, however, before Britain found a diplomatic excuse for military action.

In July 1878, an uninvited Russian delegation arrived in Afghanistan with the intention of meeting with its leader. Ali Khan tried to get the delegation to turn around and leave, but the Russians were insistent.

The British viewed this development with concern and sent a delegation of their own. This delegation was refused entry at the Khyber Pass, and military action ensued.

Like the first conflict, the British faced severe logistical challenges due to supply lines over difficult terrain and the weather, which ranged from sweltering heat to freezing cold.

The First Phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War

In November 1878, roughly 50,000 British and Indian troops crossed the border into Afghanistan. Split into three columns, they marched towards their targets deep within the country.

At the fortress of Ali Masjid on November 21, 1878, a British force of 3,000 men opened the hostilities and captured the defensive point. The Afghans, deciding that their position was undefendable, abandoned the fort during the night. On December 2, the British seized the strategically important Peiwar Kotal Pass, defeating the Afghan forces in the process. With these two victories, the road to Kabul was open.

Meanwhile, Ali Khan relocated to Mazar-i-Sharif to stretch the British forces, which would have to capture both him and Kabul. Ali Khan appealed to the Russians for help, but they suggested he seek terms of surrender.

With his health failing, Ali Khan died on February 21, 1879, and was succeeded by his son, Mohammad Yaqub Khan, considered by the Afghan people to be a British sympathizer. Indeed, he immediately sought to make peace with the British. Yaqub Khan surrendered his forces and signed the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, which gave the British jurisdiction over vast parts of Afghanistan and relinquished all Afghan foreign affairs to the British as well.

The British mission to Kabul, headed by Neville Bowles Chamberlain and Louis Cavagnari, had entered Kabul in July 1879. The Afghan people were unimpressed, but Yaqub Khan ensured the British had everything they needed and gave them lavish accommodations.

The Treaty of Gandamak effectively ended the first phase of the war, but it would not, however, end the fighting. Louis Cavagnari would be knighted for his part in negotiating the terms.

Yaqub became widely unpopular as he had turned Afghanistan into a puppet state of the British. He was thus a symbol of humiliation, and many angry Afghan people were willing to fight.

The Second Phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War

On September 3, Cavagnari, along with 70 of his guards and staff, were murdered by an angry mob of Afghan soldiers and civilians, provoking a resumption of hostilities between Afghanistan and the British Empire.

On October 6, a British force under the command of Major-General Frederick Roberts defeated the Afghans at the Battle of Charasiab and marched triumphantly into Kabul two days later.

By December, the British were fighting a rebellion, and 50,000 Afghans attacked their positions in the Sherpa cantonment. The Afghans suffered a decisive defeat. British attention then turned to Yaqub Khan. There was suspicion that the Afghan leader had been complicit in the attacks, but there was no evidence to support this. Yaqub Khan denied any involvement and resolved the issue of his position by suggesting he step down from power.

The British were happy with this development, and Yaqub went into exile in India, where he lived on a comfortable pension provided by the British.

While the British looked for a replacement to rule Afghanistan, they stamped their authority by razing villages and controlling Kabul with an iron fist. Those suspected of being complicit in the killing of Cavagnari were arrested. Some were charged and hanged. Until a replacement for the Afghan leadership could be found, Frederick Roberts named himself Military-Governor of Afghanistan and settled himself and his troops in for the winter.

During this time, his army, surrounded by hostile elements, was reinforced and relieved by troops under the command of General Stewart. The British had not forgotten the First Anglo-Afghan War and were dedicated to avoiding a repeat of the defeat and humiliation.

Another potential ruler arrived and presented himself for consideration. After his long pilgrimage from Turkestan, where he had lived in exile, Abdur Rahman Khan, the cousin of Yaqub Khan, arrived in Afghanistan and began negotiations with the British. He was installed as the new leader of Afghanistan in July 1880.

The Third Phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War

Unhappy with this development, Yaqub’s brother, Ayub Khan, rose up in revolt and defeated the British at the Battle of Maiwand. He then laid siege to the city of Kandahar but was completely defeated there, and his rebellion ended. This action included the march of 10,000 men under the command of Roberts marching 300 miles in under 20 days—a phenomenal feat of endurance in the harsh summer heat of 1880.

Abdur Rahman confirmed the Treaty of Gandamak but made it clear that he was not interested in furthering the relationship by entering into an alliance. Thus, Afghanistan remained in a state tolerable for the British.

Both the Afghans and the British can be said to have claimed victory in the Second Anglo-Afghan War. They both managed to get something out of it, but for the Afghans, a bit of their autonomy was eroded, and for the British, the gains they made were criticized for not being enough to justify the huge expense that the war incurred on British coffers.

However, the British did emerge in a better strategic position than they entered. Afghanistan was now a neutral buffer state between them and the Russian Empire.

The Buildup to the Third Anglo-Afghan War

In the wake of the Second Anglo-Afghan War, a new border was created between Afghanistan and British India. This border was drawn without any consideration for the local people. The Pashtun people, who made up the majority of Afghanistan’s population, were split between two political states.

This border was drawn in 1893 and was an agreement between the British and Abdur Rahman, who had become known as the Iron Amir due to the brutal nature of his rule. In 1901, Abdur Rahman Khan was succeeded by his son, Habibullah Khan, a much gentler man. At the beginning of the 20th century, Afghanistan went through a period of nationalism that united political factions within the country as they sought to sever all vestiges of British control.

During the First World War, sentiment in Afghanistan was fiercely supportive of the Ottoman Empire, one of the Central Powers and an enemy of the United Kingdom. Afghanistan, however, remained neutral.

In 1919, Habibullah Khan was assassinated, and his son, Amanullah, took power. He blamed Habibullah’s brother, Nasrullah, for the murder and had him imprisoned for life. Suspicion, however, also fell on Amanullah, and it is unknown who the responsible party really was.

Nasrullah had had powerful support from Afghanistan’s conservative sector, and in the wake of his imprisonment, Amanullah found himself in the difficult position of having to placate these conservative elements. His solution was to invade British India.

The Fighting 

On May 3, 1919, Afghan troops crossed the border and captured the town of Bagh. The British responded by declaring war three days later.

Afghanistan was not actually ready for war. The army was in poor condition, and the regulars had to rely on support from tribespeople. The British, too, were not in a good shape to fight. India had played a huge part in the First World War, and Britain’s Indian troops were exhausted and expecting demobilization when the Third Anglo-Afghan War broke out. Morale was thus extremely low.

The fighting was low intensity and confined to little more than skirmishes in the border region between the two countries. Despite superior weaponry in the form of machine guns, armored cars, hand grenades, and aircraft, the British struggled to gain the upper hand due to problems with discipline in their forces.

Tribal militias intended to guard the border areas deserted en masse, and British soldiers, eager to return home after the conclusion of World War I, staged a mass sit-in and refused to follow orders.

Despite winning virtually all of the engagements, the British decided to call an end to the war and accede to Afghanistan’s demands.

Outcome of the Third Anglo-Afghan War

In all, the casualty rate was light compared with previous wars between Afghanistan and the British Empire. Likely less than 3,000 soldiers died in a war that lasted only three months. With the British defeat, the Afghans got what they wanted from the conflict. On August 8, the Treaty of Rawalpindi was concluded, and the British agreed to give up control over Afghanistan’s foreign affairs.

In the course of almost a century, three wars were fought between Afghanistan and the British Empire. Despite the overwhelming superiority of British imperial power and military might, Afghanistan proved to be a target that was too formidable to tame.

The northern port of Narvik became a contested fight during Germany’s Norway invasion on April 9, 1940. The port is only 110 miles from Sweden’s vital iron ore mines. The Germans needed to secure Narvik for shipment to Germany and better Atlantic access. The Allied strategic objective included supporting Norway, obtaining the ore too, and capturing Narvik to weaken the Nazi war effort.

What Made Swedish Ore Valuable for Both Sides? 

Sweden’s iron ore was of better quality and contained an unusually high iron content. It contained far fewer impurities and was far less brittle after smelting. Ideally, this made for better weapons and military goods. Also, German ore production was insufficient; before 1940, Sweden supplied 40% for use. 

For both sides, Narvik’s reliably ice-free port enabled year-round shipping. While Germany imported the ore, Britain knew about the dependency, and occupying Narvik would deny this and secure Sweden’s ore for its own needs. 

When did the Battle of Narvik Start?

This hard-fought battle began on April 9, 1940, and lasted over two months. The Germans struck first on April 9, invading Norway with naval, aerial, and land forces. Narvik was one of four landing sites. The Allies rushed troops to the area by April 14, primarily by ship, adding their forces to the Norwegians already fighting. The Norwegians slowly built up their army as reservists showed up. 

How Did the Germans Attack Narvik?

Germany’s well-planned attack, code-named Operation Weserubung, hit Norway before they realized the war had now landed on their doorstep. In the darkness on April 9, ten Kriegsmarine destroyers carrying 1,900 soldiers slid into the fjord near Narvik. They sank two Norwegian defense ships and quickly seized Narvik and the surrounding area. Any Norwegian troops got pushed aside. The Luftwaffe flew in reinforcements over the next few weeks, mostly elite 7th Air Division paratroopers. 

When Did the Allies Counterattack?

The Allies reacted quickly on April 10, 1940, as the Royal Navy dispatched five destroyers. In the first naval battle in the fjords around Narvik, five British destroyers attacked their German counterparts, hitting and sinking several. After a seesaw battle, the British retreated but lost two destroyers. More British ships kept the Germans trapped in Narvik’s fjords. Soon, the British brought in a battleship and a carrier, whose biplane bombers attacked the destroyers first. In a short fight, the British sank most of the German ships; German crews scuttled the rest. 

The British achieved their first strategic objective-preventing any German ships from leaving Narvik. However, the Wehrmacht still controlled Narvik and used surviving Kriegsmarine sailors as ground troops. However, with ten destroyers sunk, the German navy lost half of their destroyers in one fight, leading to problems later in World War Two. But this kept the Royal Navy distracted for the moment.

What Did Both Sides Do Next?

For the first time since 1939, the Allies gained the upper hand at Narvik. The Germans numbered 4,000 combined with troops and navy. The Luftwaffe flew in another 1,000 soldiers. The Norwegian Army numbered more than 6,000 men. The Allies began a buildup with French Foreign Legion units and Polish troops. The total British numbered 24,500 soldiers, sailors, and airmen. 

The Narvik fighting spread to the mountains around. On April 14, the Allies flew or shipped in their troops, landing on either side of the port. They attacked quickly, but command or communication issues slowed progress. As the Allies attacks gained ground, the German commander, Eduard Dietl, grew concerned. Outnumbered, his options dwindled, which were to fight, surrender, or retreat to Sweden and be interned. Given Germany’s need for iron ore, his superiors knew how important Narvik was. Also, this battle split their attention with the upcoming invasion of France.

On May 28, 1940, the Allies recaptured Narvik, inflicting Germany’s first defeat. The Germans escaped east towards Sweden because of Allied communication problems.

What Did the Allies Hope to Achieve?

The Allies had their strategic objectives: capture Narvik and keep Swedish ore from Germany. The Germans fought hard despite being at the far end of their supply lines. Some reinforcements came through Sweden (with its cooperation). Despite their victory, events elsewhere forced an evacuation.

The June 1940 German invasion of France sliced through Allied lines, causing Allied panic. The Narvik troops became needed there, angering the Norwegians. Allies left Narvik by June 8, 1940, leaving Narvik in German hands. After this, they mostly used the port for iron ore shipments and supply. The port stayed in German hands until their May 7, 1945 surrender.

As the birthplace of major religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and a cradle of ancient civilizations, India holds a unique place in global heritage. With a history stretching back over 5,000 years, India has witnessed the rise and fall of great empires, the flourishing of trade routes like the Silk Road, and the transformative impact of colonialism. Significant events, such as the Mauryan and Gupta golden ages, the Mughal era, and India’s struggle for independence, have shaped its identity as a land of resilience and innovation. Scattered across the country are ancient cities that have stood the test of time, preserving the essence of India’s historical legacy. These cities, rich in architectural wonders, spiritual significance, and cultural traditions, are perfect destinations for history enthusiasts. Here are ten historic Indian cities that date back to ancient times and deserve a place on your travel itinerary.

1. Varanasi (Kashi)

Varanasi, nestled along the sacred Ganges River, is among the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities, with roots tracing back to the 2nd millennium BCE. Historically, it was a hub for Vedic religion and philosophy and thrived as a commercial center renowned for muslin and silk fabrics, perfumes, ivory works, and sculpture.

Today, Varanasi draws visitors from all over the world. The city’s ghats, stone steps leading to the river, are central to its identity. Dashashwamedh Ghat, the most lively, hosts the Ganga Aarti every evening, where priests perform rituals with lamps and chants.

The Kashi Vishwanath Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is a significant pilgrimage site that reflects the city’s deep-rooted religious heritage.

Nearby, the 18th-century Ramnagar Fort showcases Mughal architecture with its carved balconies and open courtyards. The fort’s museum houses a rare collection of vintage cars, bejeweled sedan chairs, and manuscripts that help you learn about the region’s regal past.

A short distance from Varanasi lies Sarnath, where Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon, marking it as a pivotal site in Buddhist history.

2. Delhi

With a legacy spanning over a millennium, Delhi has been the epicenter of various empires, each leaving indelible marks on its landscape. Believed to have been the legendary Indraprastha from the Mahabharata, it has served as the capital of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, among others. In 1911, the British colonial administration moved India’s capital to Delhi, solidifying its prominence.

Old Delhi, established by Emperor Shah Jahan in 1639, is home to the imposing Red Fort and the majestic Jama Masjid. Narrow lanes bustle with life, particularly at Chandni Chowk, a market dating back to Mughal times.

Meanwhile, New Delhi, designed by British architects Lutyens and Baker in the early 20th century, exudes colonial grandeur with landmarks like Rashtrapati Bhavan and India Gate. Visitors should not miss Qutub Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, or the serene Lotus Temple.

3. Ayodhya

Ayodhya, nestled on the banks of the Ghaghara River in Uttar Pradesh, is revered as the birthplace of Lord Rama. It holds a central place in Hinduism and is also significant in Buddhism and Jainism.

The recently inaugurated Ram Mandir stands as a testament to Ayodhya’s enduring religious importance.

Nearby, Hanuman Garhi, a temple dedicated to Lord Hanuman, offers panoramic views of the city. The serene banks of the Saryu River, especially at Ram ki Paidi, provide a tranquil setting for reflection and prayer.

Ayodhya’s vibrant festivals, particularly Diwali, transform the city into a luminous spectacle, with millions of oil lamps illuminating its ghats and streets.

4. Patna (Pataliputra)

Patna, formerly known as Pataliputra, was founded in the 5th century BCE by Ajatashatru, king of Magadha. It became the capital of the Magadha Empire under his son Udayin. Over the centuries, it flourished as the heart of major empires, including the Maurya and Gupta dynasties, serving as a hub for politics, culture, and education.

Today, you can explore the ruins of Pataliputra at Kumhrar, where remnants of the Mauryan period, such as the 80-pillared hall, offer you a glimpse into the city’s illustrious past.

The Patna Museum houses artifacts like the Didarganj Yakshi, exemplifying exquisite Mauryan artistry. The city’s ghats along the Ganges River, including Gandhi Ghat, provide serene spots for reflection and are integral to local traditions.

Other notable historic landmarks include sites like Agam Kuan, an ancient well dating back to Emperor Ashoka’s reign, and the Golghar, a massive granary built in 1786.

5. Madurai

Madurai, often referred to as the “Athens of the East,” is one of India’s oldest cities, with a history spanning over two millennia. Situated on the banks of the Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu, it has been a significant cultural and religious center since ancient times. The city’s origins are intertwined with Tamil literature and the Tamil Sangams, ancient academies of poets and scholars, that were held here.

At the heart of Madurai lies the Meenakshi Amman Temple, a stunning example of Dravidian architecture. Dedicated to Goddess Meenakshi and Lord Sundareswarar (Shiva), the temple complex is renowned for its towering gopurams (gateway towers) adorned with intricate carvings. The temple’s origins date back to ancient times, with significant contributions from the Nayak rulers in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Another architectural marvel is the Thirumalai Nayakkar Mahal, built in 1636 by King Thirumalai Nayak. This palace showcases a blend of Dravidian and Islamic architectural styles, featuring grand pillars, arches, and a central courtyard. The palace once served as the king’s residence and a venue for royal ceremonies.

For those interested in the city’s colonial past, the Gandhi Memorial Museum offers insights into India’s struggle for independence. Housed in the 17th-century Tamukkam Palace, the museum displays a rich collection of artifacts, including a blood-stained garment worn by Mahatma Gandhi.

Don’t forget to check out Madurai’s bustling markets, such as the Puthu Mandapam, located near the Meenakshi Temple. This 17th-century pillared hall is now a lively marketplace where artisans sell textiles, jewelry, and handicrafts.

6. Ujjain

Ujjain, located in central India, was formerly known as Ujjayini. It served as the capital of the ancient Avanti Kingdom and was a prominent center during the Maurya and Gupta empires.

The city’s spiritual significance is highlighted by the Mahakaleshwar Temple, one of the twelve Jyotirlingas dedicated to Lord Shiva. This temple attracts countless devotees seeking blessings and spiritual solace.

Ujjain is also renowned for hosting the Kumbh Mela, one of the world’s largest religious gatherings, held every twelve years on the banks of the Shipra River. This event draws millions of pilgrims who come to take a holy dip, believing it cleanses them of sins.

Another notable landmark is the Kal Bhairav Temple, dedicated to Kal Bhairav, a fierce manifestation of Lord Shiva. Unique rituals here involve offering liquor to the deity, a practice that intrigues many visitors.

The Ram Ghat on the Shipra River is a serene spot where devotees perform rituals and ceremonies, especially during festivals. The evening aarti (prayer ceremony) at Ram Ghat is a mesmerizing experience, with lamps illuminating the river and chants filling the air.

If you love astronomy, Ujjain’s Jantar Mantar observatory, built in the 17th century, showcases the city’s historical advancements in astronomical studies.

7. Hampi (Vijayanagara)

Hampi, located along the Tungabhadra River in Karnataka, was once the thriving capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, established in 1336 CE. By the 16th century, it had grown into one of the world’s largest and wealthiest cities, renowned for its grandeur and prosperity. However, in 1565, the city faced a devastating defeat at the Battle of Talikota, leading to its eventual abandonment.

Today, Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, drawing visitors with its stunning ruins. The Virupaksha Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, remains an active place of worship and showcases remarkable Dravidian architecture. Nearby, the Vijaya Vittala Temple is a captivating landmark with its iconic stone chariot and musical pillars.

Exploring the Royal Enclosure provides you with information about the empire’s regal past. It features structures like the Mahanavami Dibba, a grand platform used for royal ceremonies. The Lotus Mahal, with its Indo-Islamic design and the massive Elephant Stables, further highlight the architectural brilliance of the period.

8. Kanchipuram

Often hailed as the “City of a Thousand Temples,” South India’s Kanchipuram’s history stretches back to the 2nd century BCE, serving as a capital for the Pallavas from the 3rd to the 9th century CE and later flourishing under the Chola and Vijayanagara dynasties.

When you’re in Kanchipuram, you’ll be greeted by a panorama of majestic temples. For example, the Kailasanatha Temple, dating back to the early 8th century CE, stands as a testament to Pallava architecture, adorned with intricate carvings that have withstood the sands of time.

Another architectural marvel is the Ekambareswarar Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. This ancient temple is renowned for its towering gopuram and the revered thousand-pillared hall.

The Kamakshi Amman Temple, dedicated to Goddess Kamakshi, is a major pilgrimage site. The temple’s architecture is grand, with beautiful carvings and a serene atmosphere.

Kanchipuram is also celebrated for its handwoven silk sarees, a tradition that has thrived for centuries. The city’s bustling markets offer a vibrant array of these exquisite textiles, so both shoppers and culture lovers will enjoy visiting here.

9. Pushkar

According to Hindu mythology, Lord Brahma vanquished the demon Vajranash with a lotus flower, and where its petals landed, lakes emerged, one of which became Pushkar Lake.

Nowadays, Pushkar, which is nestled in Rajasthan’s Aravalli Range, is a vibrant pilgrimage destination renowned for the Brahma Temple, one of the few temples dedicated to Lord Brahma globally. Pilgrims and tourists alike are drawn to the sacred Pushkar Lake, encircled by 52 ghats, where devotees perform rituals and take holy dips.

The town’s allure intensifies during the annual Pushkar Camel Fair, a centuries-old tradition that has evolved into a major tourist attraction. This event showcases camel trading, cultural performances, and vibrant markets, where you’ll get more information about Rajasthan’s rich heritage.

When visiting, make sure to check out the Savitri Mata Temple, perched atop a hill and accessible via a scenic ropeway ride that provides panoramic views of Pushkar and its surroundings.

10. Thanjavur

Found in Tamil Nadu, Thanjavur flourished as the Chola Empire’s capital from the 9th to 11th centuries CE. Under Chola rule, it became a cultural and architectural hub, exemplified by the construction of the Brihadishvara Temple.

Today, Thanjavur attracts visitors with its rich heritage. The Brihadishvara Temple, completed in 1010 CE, stands as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a masterpiece of Chola architecture. Its towering vimana and intricate sculptures showcase the era’s artistic excellence.

Adjacent to the temple, the Thanjavur Maratha Palace, also known as the Nayak Palace, offers insights into the city’s later history. Built around 1550 CE by the Thanjavur Nayaks and expanded by the Marathas, the palace complex includes the Saraswathi Mahal Library, housing ancient manuscripts, and the Art Gallery, displaying exquisite bronze and stone sculptures.

Thanjavur is also renowned for its classical music, dance, and distinctive Tanjore painting style, reflecting its enduring cultural legacy.

Prometheus, whose name means “forethought” in ancient Greek, was a cunning god and benefactor to early humans. While he was considered one of the Titans who ruled the universe before being ousted by Zeus and the Olympians, he sided with the Olympians during their struggle for power. Nevertheless, he would still pay dearly at the hands of the Olympians in the future for the act of tricking the gods to benefit mankind, whom he helped create and protect. His story inspired the famous Greek play Prometheus Bound.

Prometheus’ Divine Parentage

Prometheus was one of the sons of Iapetus, the Titan god of mortality, though his mother is disputed among sources. Hesiod’s Theogony, one of the earliest sources, describes Prometheus as the son of Iapetus by Klymene, a daughter of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. Apollodorus, in his Library of Greek Mythology, notes that the mother of Prometheus is Asia, whose name was given to that same continent. He appears to be equating the two goddesses.

Aeschylus’ Prometheus Bound, a major source of the myth, is the first play trilogy conventionally known as the Prometheia dedicated to the eponymous god. The poet says that Prometheus’ mother is named Themis, the Titan goddess of divine law and prophecy.

How (and Why) Did Prometheus Create Humanity? 

Prometheus was credited with the creation of humans, though it is unclear which generation of humans he created. Prometheus’ creation of mankind mainly comes from sources from the 4th century BCE onwards. Earlier sources cite him as merely a benefactor and say that the race of humans likely sprang up from the earth. Hesiod’s Works and Days describes four generations of humans that lived before the current, modern humans. The first generation, known as the race of gold, lived under the rule of Kronos, while all subsequent generations lived under the rule of Zeus.

At first, the world was only inhabited by the gods, but then Prometheus was tasked with creating humans and animals. He molded them from water and clay, creating humans in the likeness of the gods. He was then tasked, along with his brother Epimetheus, with providing them and animals with their respective qualities, such as claws, fur, and wings. Epimetheus allotted all the animals their qualities, but by the time he got to humans there was nothing left, leaving them “naked and shoeless.” Prometheus came to inspect his brother’s work and approved of how the animals were furnished, but for mankind he was unsure what to give them so they could provide for themselves.

During Kronos’s golden age, it wasn’t much of an issue as the Titan watched over humans himself and the earth produced food without needing to be tended. However, under Zeus, animals became more fierce and the fruits of the earth remained hidden. Prometheus decided to give them fire and the knowledge to use it.

Patronage of Humanity

While Prometheus was best known for his theft of fire for the benefit of humanity, he also served as a benefactor in other ways. Along with fire, Prometheus stole knowledge of arts and craftsmanship from Athena and Hephaestus. In Aeschylus’ Prometheus Bound, the god himself relates that he taught humans how to read the stars and the motion of celestial bodies. He invented numbers and mathematics and taught humans how to use them. He taught what herbs could be mixed into medicines and how to read omens and dreams. He taught humans about the various metals and their value. As he says in the play, “every art possessed by man comes from Prometheus.”

Not only did Prometheus create humans, but at Zeus’ command he also showed them two paths that can be taken in life. The first path was that of freedom and self-determination. Prometheus made this path begin roughly and made it hard to traverse, but by the end it became smooth, allowing those who chose to walk freedom’s path to end their lives with rest and respite. The second path was that of slavery. It began smooth and easy, full of pleasant things, but by the end it became impassable.

Titanomachy

When the Olympians and the Titans eventually came into conflict in a decade-long war known as the Titanomachy, Prometheus was initially on the side of the Titans. He was told by Themis or Gaia, both of whom were said to give prophecies out of Delphi, how the future was meant to unfold. Therefore, Prometheus tried to convince the Titans that they shouldn’t use violence to remain in power, instead, they should use craft and guile. They didn’t listen to him, preferring to rule through strength of arms. Prometheus changed sides and counseled the Olympians instead. On his advice, the Olympians were able to overcome the Titans and take control of the cosmos.

Deceiving Zeus and the Theft of Fire

In the early days after their creation, humans used to sacrifice whole animals to the gods, meaning that the poor were unable to give proper offerings on account of the high expense. To resolve this, the gods and humans had a gathering at Mekone to determine fair portions for sacrifice. Prometheus devised a trick to ensure that humans would have the best option. For one portion, he took the bones and the unappealing parts of the animal and dressed them up in glistening fat to make it look appetizing. For the second portion, he took the meat and hid it in the animal’s stomach. He then bid Zeus to choose which one he’d prefer. Hesiod relates that Zeus knew what the trick was but chose the first portion anyway, opting to punish mankind for Prometheus’ hubris.

Zeus took fire away from mankind and hid it on Mount Olympus. But Prometheus snuck into the palace of the gods and stole fire back, hiding it in a fennel stalk to keep it from being discovered. When Zeus learned of the theft, he had Hephaestus create a new punishment for men: Pandora, the first woman. In order to prevent men from avoiding the punishment of women, he also decreed that men must be married; otherwise, when they die, all their property will be seized and divided among their relatives.

The Great Flood

After Zeus took power from Kronos, he went down to Earth to visit King Lycaon. Seeing the impiety of mankind, he determined that all of humanity needed to be wiped out and to start over. He sent a great flood to wash everything away, but Prometheus knew of his plan. He warned his son Deucalion of the coming disaster, instructing him to build an ark to save himself and his wife, Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora. Deucalion did as he was instructed and when the flood came, he and Pyrrha were the only two survivors. They drifted for nine days and nine nights until they reached Parnassus, where they made landfall. Zeus allowed them to live since they were pious. Even throughout the calamity, they continued to pray and give sacrifice to the gods who had sought to kill them.

Zeus sent Hermes to them, or some sources say they sought advice from the Oracle at Delphi, to give them anything they should desire. Deucalion asked how they might save humanity. The Oracle posed them a riddle, but Zeus told them outright to cast stones over their shoulders. They did so, and from the stones humans sprouted forth; men from those thrown by Deucalion and women from those thrown by Pyrrha.

Punishment: Prometheus Bound

For the crime of giving fire back to mankind and for the hubris of thinking that he could trick Zeus, Zeus ordered Hephaestus, or Hermes according to Roman mythographer Hyginus, to chain Prometheus to the peak of the Caucasus mountains, staking him through the arms, legs, and torso with rivets to keep him in place. Every day, the sun would rise to burn his skin and an eagle would set on him to eat his immortal liver. Every night, he would freeze in the cold and his liver would regenerate, only for the cycle to repeat again the next day. Prometheus remained there for 30 thousand years, enduring his daily torment. In Aeschylus’ Prometheus Bound, Hermes tells Prometheus that there will be no end to his suffering unless another god takes his place and descends to Hades.

Jason and the Argonauts once passed by the Caucasus in their search for the golden fleece, and they could hear Prometheus’ screams as the eagle tore at him. Heracles also wound up in the mountains and encountered the chained god, who helped point him in the direction of the garden of the Hesperides. Being a god of foresight, Prometheus was aware that he would one day be freed by Heracles, but he needed Zeus’s permission.

Clever Prometheus waited until the opportune moment before revealing that he knew which goddess would birth a son to Zeus who was powerful enough to overthrow him as Zeus had overthrown his father, Kronos. The king of the gods desperately wanted this information and eventually agreed to let Prometheus go if he told him. Only then did Prometheus reveal that it was Thetis, a goddess that Zeus was in the midst of attempting to court, who was prophesied to bear a son more powerful than his father. Zeus immediately gave up his pursuit and instead gave Thetis in marriage to the hero Peleus, and together they had Achilles.

When the information was revealed, Prometheus was not immediately freed. Instead, Heracles returned to kill the eagle and set him free. Heracles then offered Chiron, who was suffering from an incurable wound and unable to die, to Zeus as a god willing to die in exchange for Prometheus’ freedom.

Ivar hinn Beinlausi, better known as Ivar the Boneless, is one of the most popular characters on the History Channel’s Vikings TV show. He is the brutal but crippled son of Ragnar Lodbrok who ruthlessly defies all expectations to become the ruler of Kattegat, but later burns all bridges with his family and finds himself in exile. But how closely does the Ivar portrayed on screen resemble the historical figure, and was he really a famous, crippled Viking warrior?

Who Was Ivar the Boneless?

The Ivar the Boneless that we meet in the History Channel’s Vikings is the youngest son of Ragnar Lodbrok. Born and raised a cripple, this results in a brutal and ruthless personality. He is in constant conflict with his brothers as he seeks to prove himself through power. While Ivar was a son of Ragnar, the producers took significant liberties in their portrayal of this real historical figure.

Was Ivar the Boneless a Real Person?

Ivar the Boneless was a real person. He is mentioned in the Saga of Ragnar Lodbrok as one of the sons of Ragnar Lodbrok, a Danish king, who was also a real historical figure, though there is no doubt that his exploits have been significantly exaggerated in the sagas.

Ivar’s existence also seems to be confirmed by the Irish Annals, which records a Viking named Imar, which scholars argue is a variation of Ivar, active in Britain and Ireland between 853 and 873 CE. These dates make sense if Ivar arrived in Britain with the Great Heathen Army to avenge his father’s death.

Was Ivar the Boneless a Son of Ragnar Lodbrok?

Ivar is recorded as one of the nine known sons of Ragnar Lodbrok. It is quite possible that Ragnar had more sons, and a few daughters, who aren’t preserved in the sources.

Ragnar first had a relationship with the legendary shieldmaiden Lagertha and has a son Fridleif and two daughters. When the pair divorced, the children seem to have stayed with their mother. Ragnar then had two sons with Thora, the daughter of a Jarl of Gotland, called Eirik and Agnar.

When Ragnar and Thora divorced, he met a beautiful but poor woman named Kraka. Despite her humble background, he fell in love with her and married her. But it was then revealed that her true identity was Aslaug, the daughter of the hero Sigurd and the Valkyrie Brynhild. This seems like a convenient discovery for the wife of a king, but regardless, the couple went on to have five sons.

The oldest of those sons was Ivar, reportedly born at Uppsala in 787, followed by Bjorn Ironside, Halfdan Hvitserk, Rognvald, and Sigurd Snake in the Eye. So, unlike in the TV series, Ivar is the oldest of the sons and a full-blood brother of Bjorn Ironside. Ragnar also had another son Ubbe with an unknown woman.

Was Ivar Really Boneless?

The Vikings often had nicknames that described something about them, such as Ragnar Lodbrok (hairy pants) and Harald Fairhair. So, one of the big questions is, why was Ivar called “the boneless”? In the TV show, he is represented as being born a cripple, but this is unlikely.

Babies born with obvious problems were usually exposed rather than raised. This was considered a mercy because it would have been hard for them to survive, and it also meant more resources were available for the stronger children who were more likely to grow up. While an exception could have been made for the son of Ragnar Lodbrok, that he would also go on to become a mighty warrior is highly unlikely.

According to the legend, Aslaug had a vision that if she and Ragnar did not wait three days to consummate their marriage, any child to be conceived during those three days would be born boneless. It seems the couple could not control themselves, and their oldest son Ivar was born boneless.

Much ink has been spilled over what is meant by boneless. Supporting the suggestion that he was crippled are accounts of him being carried on a shield by other warriors. But it is never said that this was done because he was a cripple and successful Viking leaders were often honored by being carried on the shields of their defeated foes.

There are several alternative suggestions for what boneless could mean. It has been suggested that he was impotent, as he is sometimes described as having no interest in women. The sources suggest that he never married and sired no known heirs. It has also been suggested that he had hyper-flexibility, making him appear to be a boneless contortionist.

It is also possible that he was not born crippled but developed some kind of disability that resulted in weakness in the lower limbs. However, he is described as large and strong, particularly in the upper body, and excellent with a bow and arrow.

While it is frustrating, we will probably never know why Ivar was called boneless by his contemporaries. Whatever the reason, it doesn’t seem to have held him back from living a thoroughly Viking lifestyle.

What Is the History of Ivar the Boneless?

Ivar’s historical actions can be divided into two distinct periods, his time leading his band of brothers in Viking territory and his time in Britain with the Great Heathen Army. While some sources suggest that he died at home in Denmark, there is also good evidence to suggest that he chose to stay in Britain and make his name there.

A Band of Brothers

Ivar is generally considered the most cunning and intelligent of Ragnar’s sons. His father seems to have recognized this, entrusting him with the administration of Jutland at some point. Apparently, during this time, Ivar’s half-brother Ubbe approached Ivar with a plan to overthrow his father. Unwilling to betray either his father or brother, Ivar apparently went into exile. Rather than being angry, Ragnar reportedly respected the decision.

But according to the sagas, Ragnar expelled his sons with Aslaug from his realm. This was a Viking custom, sending off younger sons to protect the interests of older sons, in this case, Eirik and Agnar, and giving them an opportunity to make their own names. Ragnar also gave them ships and resources. As the oldest and wisest, Ivar was the leader of the band of brothers who set themselves up on Zealand from where they raided nearby Viking territories including Jutland, Gotland, Oland, and other minor islands.

Taking advantage of the pressure that these raids put on the Swedish King Eystein, Eirik and Agnar went to Eystein and demanded that he cede some of his territory. Unimpressed, Eystein killed Ragnar’s two elder sons. The band of younger brothers then decided to seek vengeance.

The story of the ensuing battle is strange. It suggests that Eystein brought a magical cow called Sibilja with him to wreak havoc on the battlefield. Ivar shot the cow in the eye with his bow, which sent the cow berserk. So, Ivar had himself thrown at the cow, perhaps thrown because he was a cripple but perhaps not, and then crushed the cow with his immense upper-body strength.

The Great Heathen Army

Reportedly, Ragnar left Ivar in control of his Danish territories when he went off to conquer England, which would make sense if Ivar was his oldest surviving son. Apparently, Ragnar had become extremely arrogant at this point and believed that he could conquer England with just two ships. Instead, he was captured and killed by King Aella of Northumbria, reportedly thrown into a snake pit.

According to the sagas, to avenge their father, Ivar and his brothers, including Ubbe, put together 400 ships and sailed to England in 865. This troop became known as the Great Heathen Army.

The sources suggest that despite having so many ships, the Vikings were still outnumbered when they arrived. Therefore, while many of his brothers rushed into battle at the head of individual bands and suffered humiliating defeats, the strategic Ivar refused to fight. Instead, Ivar approached King Aella as a potential ally if he would pay the accustomed fee for the death of his father.

The story of what happened next is fantastical but probably contains a grain of truth. Aella reportedly offered Ivar as much land as he could cover with the biggest hide he could find, which would clearly have been meant as an insult. But Ivar took the opportunity. He cut a hide into ribbons and spread it out so far that he carved out a significant kingdom for himself in England with York as his capital. In reality, what he probably did was make alliances and gather resources to carve out a foothold in England. He then invited his brothers to join him in seeking vengeance.

With Ivar as their leader, in 867, the Vikings defeated Aella’s army and captured and killed the king, reportedly using a torturous technique called the blood eagle. This involved carving an eagle on a man’s back and salting the wound, then extracting their ribs in a way that they pulled out the still-breathing lungs, letting the man die slowly and in pain.

War Lord in Britain

For most of Ivar’s brothers, the death of Aella meant that their vengeance was complete. But no doubt seeing opportunity, Ivar stayed in England, and he reportedly ruled over his kingdom with a brutal fist. Christian sources suggest that Ivar had a particular hatred of Christians and demanded that Edmund, king of East Anglia, renounce his religion after a failed uprising. When Edmund refused, Ivar tortured and killed him, and left his body exposed, denying him a proper burial. He also reportedly sacked monasteries, slaughtered monks, and stole their wealth.

It is possible that he was also active in Ireland, as another Ivar is mentioned there. He reportedly set himself up as a king in Dublin from where he raided coastal settlements on both sides of the Irish Sea. This Ivar reportedly died of disease in 873, but it can’t be verified that this was Ivar the Boneless. If it is, he was an impressive 86 years old when he died.

Who Plays Ivar the Boneless in TV Shows and Movies?

The Ivar who appears in the History Channels Vikings is played by Danish actor Alex Høgh Anderson, opposite Travis Fimmel as Ragnar, Katheryn Winnick as Lagertha, and Alexander Ludwig as Bjorn Ironside. Since then, the young actor has also appeared in the Danish war film The Bombardment, the mini-series The Viking: Downfall of a Drug Lord, and the Danish crime thriller Those Who Kill.

His character is the youngest son of Ragnar who grows up resenting his disability and the contempt of his older brothers. This causes him to develop a brutal personality that pushes him to prove himself at all costs, even if it means hurting his beloved brothers.

While this is probably the most famous portrayal of Ivar on film, he also appeared as an agile warrior in the 1969 film Alfred the Great, about the Anglo-Saxon king who fought off the Viking invasion, and as a reclusive homosexual in Hammer of the Gods in 2013. Interestingly, in this film, Ivar was played by Ivan Kaye, who played Aella in Vikings.

Interestingly, despite the period setting, Ivar does not appear in Netflix’s The Last Kingdom (2015-2022), despite Ubbe appearing as a leader of the Great Heathen Army. This is perhaps because it was challenging to fill the role after the powerful representation of the character on Vikings.

How Is Ivar the Boneless Portrayed in the TV Show Vikings?

We have already established that many of Ivar’s plot points in Vikings don’t align with the historical figure. Most important are Ivar’s position in Ragnar’s family, the idea that he accompanied his father to England to witness his death, and the presentation of him betraying his family to take control of Kattegat.

Another historical difficulty is Ivar traveling to the land of the Kyivan Rus’ after he is expelled from Kattegat. This was no doubt a move by producers to keep the popular character in the show. They did the same thing with Ragnar, who was supposed to die in season one but made it to season four.

The Kyivan Rus’ were a real people with Viking connections that settled the area from the Finno-Russian border down through modern Ukraine to the Baltic Sea with their capital at Novgorod. The people were a mix of Norsemen, mostly from Sweden, eastern Slavs, and Finnic people. The kingdom was apparently officially founded in 862 when the Varangian Viking Prince Rurik was invited to take control of Novgorod, and his successor Oleg the Wise, who ruled from 879 to 912, extended the kingdom south and east. The kingdom converted to Christianity at the end of the 10th century under Vladimir the Great, and the empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms by the 12th century.

This means that the Vikings TV show pushes Ivar out of time, as he would have had to be around 100 years old to share his adventures with Oleg, but it was an interesting way for the show to retain the popular character and explore this lesser-known aspect of Viking history.

Ridley Scott’s epic blockbuster Gladiator (2000), starring Russell Crowe, is a masterpiece of cinema. It has engaging characters, excellent cinematography, and an epic musical score that rightly deserves a place in the history of the silver screen. However, the principal attractions of the film are the riveting fight scenes against barbarian hordes and gladiatorial matches in the Colosseum. But how accurate are these scenes? Are they true to the actual history, or are they more spectacle than substance?

The Roman Army

The opening scene of Gladiator, set at the end of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, is the pitched Battle of Vindobona. It pits the Roman legions commanded by General Maximus against a horde of Germanic barbarians. Historically, Vindobona was a Roman military encampment in what is currently Vienna. There was no historic battle at this location, but the overall conflict did take place during the Marcomannic Wars, which pitted the Romans against a confederation of Germanic and Sarmatian tribes between 166 and 180 CE. Rome had already reached the extent of its territorial expansion and fought this war to hold on to their northern borders.

At first glance, the Roman military in the film appears quite good. They are armed and equipped with the heavy armor of lorica segmentata, which is made from bands of overlapping metal segments. It is unknown how extensive the use of this type of armor was, but its inclusion in the film is not inaccurate. It is also possible that the Romans would be protected by lorica hamata, or chain mail, which can be seen worn by some of the archers.

The other equipment is also relatively accurate, with emphasis on the uniformity of the Romans, which gives a sense of professionalism and order compared to the chaotic barbarians. One inaccuracy, however, is the Roman officers, specifically the centurions, who led the advance against the Germanic horde. Like all officers in the film, their helmets have crests to distinguish them from the lower ranks. However, a centurion’s crest was traversed rather than front to back, as was the case with higher-level officers.

The German Horde

It’s much harder to accurately assess the appearance of the German army, since primary sources are scarce. What is known is that they were not as well armed or equipped as their Roman adversaries, though they were by no means a rabble of unruly primitives that the movie suggests. The amount of armor used by the tribes is debatable, though certainly, the chieftains and those of higher social status would have access to chain mail. They would also have used plundered Roman equipment acquired during the 14-year-long conflict.

It is also reasonable to assume that the Germanic tribesmen would have used large oblong shields and spears, fighting in shield wall formations that bristled with spear points. They would not have had the discipline or uniformity of their Roman adversaries, but they would hardly have been the horde depicted in the film. Some of the Germans also wear horned helmets, which are not historical at all and have their origins in 19th-century operas.

This was probably a deliberate storytelling element by the filmmakers. Having the barbarians using captured Roman gear would have made telling the two sides apart that much more difficult for the viewer. More importantly, the differences in equipment, tactics, and organization play up the civilized vs savage trope common in media.

Preparations for Battle 

The film begins with General Maximus noticing a bird perched on a dead branch, which has a surprising historical parallel. The Romans were highly superstitious, especially before an impending battle. They were constantly on the lookout for portents from the gods, including noting the pattern of birds in flight. The scene then cuts to the general inspecting the Roman positions as the final preparations are taking place, including a large number of ballistas and catapults. This is the first inaccuracy.

The Romans did make extensive use of siege artillery, which was a vital part of their military arsenal. They were used to capture cities and fortresses and could be wielded with devastating effect. However, they were very cumbersome and could take hours to set up, and aiming and adjusting the range was a laborious task. This was fine against large, stationary targets like a city’s walls or towers, but useless against mobile formations of troops in the field, who would simply move out of the way if bracketed by a siege engine.

After the return of the headless Roman messenger, the Germans emerge from the trees, their willingness to fight apparent. They begin with their war cry, banging their weapons on their shields. This is accurate, though an interesting note is that the soundtrack for the war chant was lifted directly from the 1964 film Zulu, added as an homage to that classic movie. Historically, the Germans would have performed the Barritus, a war cry that started as a low hum that gradually increased in volume, the shields of the warriors amplifying the sound until the battlefield echoed with their chant. Later in Rome’s history, Rome adopted this practice due to the influx of Germanic troops into its armies.

The Battle of Vindobona

After a few more preparations, including a rousing speech, Maximus signals his men to “unleash hell.” Moments later, the artillery and ranks of archers opened up on the Germans, striking with a barrage of incendiary projectiles. This is not something that would have been done for a number of reasons. Fire arrows and other projectiles would not have been used historically, at least not in this context. If used at all, they would have been utilized to set buildings on fire during a siege, but a normal unlit arrow would have been more effective against troops in the field. They were probably added for a combination of the visual spectacle and because they resemble tracer rounds in modern firearms, which makes seeing them on film easier.

The Romans in the film also placed much more emphasis on archers than they would have done historically. Archers were used by the Romans, but those men would be auxiliaries, non-citizen soldiers who fought for Rome, and would have been much fewer in number. They would also have used slingers, which are absent from the film. They would have been used in a skirmisher role, advancing ahead of the main body of troops to break up the enemy formation.

The Opening Battle: Infantry vs Cavalry

With the Germans in fiery disarray, the order to advance is given while Maximus leads his cavalry on a flanking charge. The first issue with this is the cavalry. Like the archers, the cavalry was primarily made up of auxiliaries, in this case, made up of German or Gallic troops. They would be posted on the flanks of the army and were used for scouting and to threaten the enemy flanks. They made up a small number of Rome’s total strength. Furthermore, historically, the Germans had a cavalry advantage over the Romans, though, in the film, they don’t have a single horseman. Another inaccuracy is the use of stirrups, which had not been invented yet, though this is an understandable anachronism given the safety concerns of riding a horse without stirrups.

The Roman infantry then began their advance. This is the key to Rome’s success: a steady push by heavy infantry in disciplined formations. They move in strict lines overseen by their centurions who lead from the front. The only nitpick with their formation is that they should be advancing in formations three ranks deep, not two. They are then shot at by German archers and adopt the famous testudo, or tortoise formation, with the front ranks closing their shields and the rear ranks holding theirs above their heads to form a roof. The Romans did adopt this formation, though it was almost exclusively used when assaulting enemy fortifications. In an open-field battle, the testudo limits mobility and vision, leaving infantry vulnerable in close-quarter fighting. If attacked by enemy archers at this range, they would maintain their line formations and simply raise their shields as they closed the distance.

The Opening Battle: Discipline vs Frenzy

At this point the Germans, worked up into a battle frenzy, charge into the Romans in a disorganized mass. The Romans receive the charge, and almost immediately after both armies meet, the entire scene descends into a swirling melee without any order. We are soon joined by Maximus and his cavalry, who only add to the confusion. In reality, the Romans were as successful as they were by maintaining strict discipline and keeping in formation during even the most brutal and chaotic battles. It was this disciplined approach to warfare that allowed the Romans to dominate even when outnumbered or otherwise outmatched.

Likewise, the Germans would have been in formation, and while they would not have been as disciplined as the Romans, they would have formed a shield wall with bristling spear points. Staying in line was vital to survival on a battlefield, and rushing in a disorganized mass was tantamount to a death sentence. They may even have waited in place and allowed the Romans to come to them, which would maintain their lines, but would be much less spectacular to watch on film.

The Romans also display some Hollywood tactics, not throwing their pilum. These were specially designed javelins with a long iron shaft and a heavy wooden handle. Each legionary would have two, throwing them as they closed the distance with the enemy. The narrow iron shaft would puncture shields and armor, and the weight of the wooden handle would cause the metal to bend, causing it to become stuck in the enemy’s shield. Because of the bent shaft, it could not be removed, forcing the warrior to choose between fighting with an unwieldy pilum in their shield, weighing it down, or discarding the shield altogether. In the film, the legionaries do not throw their pilum; instead, they use them as ineffectual spears and receive the German charge with their gladius still in their sheaths.

Overall, the opening battle is visually spectacular but historically leaves much to be desired.

The Colosseum Fights

After betrayal by the emperor Commodus, Maximus is forced into slavery and becomes a gladiator, fighting in several provincial shows before finally competing in the Colosseum, more accurately called the Flavian Amphitheater. Once in Rome, the first major fight was a reenactment of the battle of Zama, a legendary victory against Rome’s most hated enemy, the Carthaginians. This is actually historically true. The Colosseum would commonly host reenactments of Rome’s past battles and mythological battles in the same way that people today will watch a historical epic. On several occasions, the Colosseum was flooded and a mock naval battle, a Naumachia, took place.

In the next fight, Maximus is pitted against a retired gladiator in a one-on-one match, which ends with Maximus sparing his opponent’s life. This is also accurate. Contrary to popular belief, most gladiatorial matches did not end in the death of one of the combatants. More often than not, mercy was shown, and the gladiator would live to fight another day. Training someone to be a gladiator was a time-consuming and expensive process, and it was economically unfeasible to lose a trained fighter at the end of each match. Over their careers, fighters would rack up win and loss records, which the citizens of Rome would analyze and compare. Each gladiator had their own supporters and fans, no different from modern boxers or MMA fighters.

During that fight, Maximus is ambushed by tigers, which leap out from trap doors hidden in the Colosseum’s sand. This is also historically accurate. The wooden floor of the Colosseum did have trap doors, and the underbelly of the amphitheater had a maze of corridors leading to lifts and ramps. These can be used for dramatic effect, with doors opening to reveal wild animals, other gladiators, props, or whatever else the editor of the games thought would be appreciated by the audience.

What was lacking from the film’s gladiatorial matches were the diverse types of gladiators the Romans utilized. Rather than generic warriors, there were different gladiatorial types, each with their own weapons and fighting style. Some were exaggerated versions of foes the Romans faced on the battlefield, such as the Samnite, the Thraex or Thracian, or the Hoplomachus, a stylized version of the Greek hoplite. Others included the Murmillo and the net-wielding Retiarius. Each would be trained for a specific fighting style and would be paired off against one another. For example, the Murmillo, who was more heavily armored with a large shield and a gladius short sword, was often pitted against the Thraex, who carried the curved sica sword and small shield but was much more mobile.

Commodus in the Arena

One final inaccuracy is the emperor Commodus. The film shows his obsession with gladiatorial games, which culminates in the final fight in the arena between himself and Maximus. If anything, this downplays the emperor’s participation. Commodus was not only a fan of gladiatorial matches but scandalized Rome by actively participating in them. He routinely fought in the Colosseum, his opponents fighting with dull weapons to prevent any injury to the emperor. He routinely fought wild animals, shooting them with a bow. Commodus claimed that he was the reincarnation of Hercules and used his victories in the games as proof of his fighting prowess.

His death in the arena is not only historically inaccurate, but also out of character. He would never place himself in a position to be killed by an opponent. Further, while this never happened historically, should he actually be threatened with death or serious injury in the arena, the match would have been called off, and the praetorian guards would have no doubt dispatched the gladiator in question.

Overall, while the film Gladiator is a masterpiece of cinema, rightly deserving a place as one of the great epic movies of all time, the historical accuracy, including the fight scenes, have grains of truth that are buried under cinematic spectacle.

America’s most-anticipated international contemporary art fair kicked off its 2024 edition. This year, Art Basel Miami Beach brings together more galleries than ever, plus an exciting lineup of showstoppers, like a $30 million Picasso painting. The fair is open to the public from December 6 to 9 at the Miami Beach Convention Center.

Art Basel Miami Beach 2024 Features 286 Galleries

Featuring 286 galleries from 38 countries, the 22nd edition of Art Basel Miami Beach is the largest to date. The fair showcases both established and emerging artists across several sectors. The main sector, Galleries, comprises leading international galleries and the artists they represent. A small selection of these galleries also exhibit curated presentations for the Kabinett sector, which Art Basel describes as a “jewel-box sector for thematic presentations.” The Survey sector spotlights pre-2000 projects and lesser-known artistic practices, while Nova focuses on works created within the past three years by emerging talents. Young galleries present solo exhibitions in the Positions sector, and the Meridians sector features large-scale projects that transcend the conventional booth display.

VIP Day Sales and a $30 Million Picasso

Following VIP days on December 4 and 5, major galleries at Art Basel Miami Beach reported strong sales before opening to the public. Blue-chip gallery David Zwirner reported 24 sales totaling $12.9 million, including a $3.5 million Infinity Nets painting by Yayoi Kusama. Hauser & Wirth sold a total of 20 works for a total of $15.16 million. Among these were a 2024 pastel by George Condo that fetched $2.5 million and a 2014 canvas and tarp piece by David Hammons, which sold for $4.75 million. Pace Gallery reported $4.16 million in sales, including a $1 million painting by Sam Gillam, and Gladstone Gallery sold a $2 million work by Keith Haring.

Couple with Cup by Pablo Picasso seems to be the most expensive work on view at Art Basel Miami Beach this year. Valued at $30 million, the 1969 painting is being offered by Acquavella Galleries, which is based in Manhattan’s Upper East Side. Meanwhile, Helly Nahmad Gallery, a fellow New York City institution, is selling a monumental abstract painting by Gerhard Richter for $27 million.

The History of Art Basel Miami Beach

Art Basel was founded in the 1970s by a trio of gallerists in Basel, Switzerland. It has since evolved into one of the most renowned art fairs in the world, attracting global galleries and collectors to annual events in Basel, Hong Kong, Paris, and Miami Beach. Art Basel expanded to the United States with its first Miami Beach edition in 2002. The debut fair celebrated the city’s unique multicultural identity, showcasing 160 galleries from 23 countries and welcoming 30,000 visitors. It now coincides with Miami Art Week, which features satellite fairs, local art shows, and a first-of-its-kind digital art fair.

Commodus was the 17th emperor of the Roman Empire and belonged to the widely praised “Nerva-Antonine Dynasty.” However, he is generally remembered in sharp contrast to his hallowed “good” predecessors as an infamously “evil” emperor. Raised by the wise and philosophical Marcus Aurelius, the Commodus we meet in the ancient accounts seemed totally disinterested in continuing his father’s celebrated legacy. Instead, we meet a precocious and cruel tyrant, indifferent to duty and propriety, whose debauchery and megalomania are played out through the Gladiatorial games of the Roman Colosseum.

Commodus: The First Emperor “Born to the Purple”

Uniquely, Commodus was the first emperor to be born while his father was emperor and to be raised to imperial authority jointly with his father during his reign. Even the celebrated Julio-Claudians had to use adoption to secure the succession, and while Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, the young man was already 30 years old when his father succeeded to imperial power.

Thus, Commodus was the first emperor “born to the purple,” when his mother Faustina the Younger gave birth to him and his twin brother on August 31st, 161 CE, in an Italian city near Rome called Lanuvium. His father, the Stoic emperor Marcus Aurelius, had been in power for five months as the adopted heir of Antoninus Pius, who in turn had been adopted by the emperor Hadrian.

In fact, the Nerva-Antonines were marked by their use of the adoptive principle for succession up until the accession of Commodus. While this had not necessarily been an intentional policy, as each emperor had had no sons to succeed him, it did mean that the “best men” to rule were ostensibly chosen from the senatorial class. This made Commodus and his unique succession to the throne all the more remarkable, especially considering its later infamy.

A Cruel and Idle Heir?

Commodus outlived his twin, who died at four, just as seven of his other 13 siblings were lost. This breathed life into an apparent dream that Faustina had before giving birth to Commodus. She dreamt that she gave birth to twin snakes, one of which was much stronger than the other.

At the early age of four, around the time of his twin’s death, his father named him heir, determined that his son would share the same comprehensive education he had received. Even with these paternal efforts, the sources tell us that Commodus had no interest in such personal edification to prepare him for rule but preferred to live an idle and indifferent life instead.

Furthermore, the same sources—particularly the dubious Historia Augusta—assert that Commodus began to exhibit a depraved and cruel nature from early on. For example, there is a horrifying anecdote claiming that Commodus, at the age of 12, ordered one of his servants to be cast into a boiling furnace because the latter had failed to properly heat up the young heir’s bath.

The same source also claims that he would send men to the wild beasts of the arena at whim. On one occasion, it was because somebody was reading an account of the emperor Caligula, and the speaker noted that Commodus and Caligula shared the same birthday.

Such anecdotes about Commodus’ early life are then compounded by general assessments that he “never showed regard for either decency or expense.” Claims made against him include that he was prone to filling his time playing dice in his own home, which was considered an improper activity for someone in the imperial family, and that he collected a harem of prostitutes of all shapes, sizes, and appearances. Further, he enjoyed riding chariots and living with gladiators.

The Historia Augusta then gets much more debauched and depraved in its assessments of Commodus, claiming that he cut open obese people and would mix excrement with all manner of food before forcing others to consume it. Perhaps to distract him from such improper indulgences, Marcus Aurelius brought his son along with him across the Danube in 172 CE, during the Marcomannic Wars that Rome was bogged down in at this time.

Co-ruler With His Father

Marcus Aurelius continued efforts to redirect Commodus’s predilections by expediting his elevation to manhood and official Roman citizenship in a ceremony known as “toga virilem sumere.” Shortly after this, a rebellion broke out in the east by a prominent governor and commander called Avidius Cassius. Although it was put down quickly and easily, it prompted the emperor to secure the succession.

Consequently, he soon after elevated Commodus to co-ruler at the strikingly early age of 16, marking another new precedent that would be accentuated by later “child-emperors.” Marcus himself had been the first emperor to share imperial power with his co-ruler Lucius Verus, although the latter died in 16 CE from the Antonine Plague.

Yet, with all of these efforts impressed upon him, Commodus apparently did not adjust his behavior and continued to occupy himself in the same ways. His time was spent obsessing over gladiator fighting and chariot racing, and he kept company with habitual degenerates and reprobates.

In what was perhaps a last-ditched attempt to correct his son’s course, Marcus brought Commodus along with him to the northern frontier when war broke out again with the pugnacious Marcomanni tribe, who hailed from across the Danube River.

It was here, on March 17th, 180 CE, that Marcus Aurelius died, leaving Commodus as the sole emperor.

Early Stages as Sole Emperor

According to the 3rd-century CE Roman historian Cassius Dio, Commodus’s sole accession marked the moment when the Empire descended from “a kingdom of gold, to one of iron and rust.” This remark mirrors the perception of most subsequent commentators, who describe Commodus’s accession as the beginning point of the gradual decline and death of the Roman Empire in the West.

After being acclaimed as the sole ruler near the frontier, Commodus expeditiously (and unpopularly) ended the war with Germanic and Sarmatian tribes across the Danube. This act was traditionally seen as a reversal and regression of his father’s expansionist policy across the frontier, which had aimed to expand Roman territory beyond the river.

Ancient commentators accused him of cowardice and disregard for duty. However, some modern historians have asserted that the move was necessary. It would have placated sectors of the war-wearied Roman elite and allowed Commodus to focus on consolidating his position at home.

Nonetheless, it crucially created an atmosphere of criticism and resentment in the army and the militaristic elements of the aristocracy, who had looked forward to further glory and Roman expansion in the north. However, these elements were somewhat assuaged by Commodus putting down rebellions in other corners of the Empire, particularly in Britain and North Africa.

While these disturbances were being addressed, Commodus’s early years in Rome were not marked by many great policies in the judicial or administrative spheres. He did, however, aim to appease and impress the people by focusing on providing the populace with prodigious games and shows.

As a result, he seems to have become quite popular with the plebeian class, and the army was also said to have been eventually assuaged with payments given to them after his accession, as was the custom. The one class that he fatally chose to disregard, which also tended to be the writers of history, was the senatorial aristocracy.

Instead of utilizing “the best (senatorial) men” to fill his bureaucracy and machinery of state, he often preferred to favor his “freedmen”; ex-slaves who had won their freedom. Although almost every other emperor before him utilized freedmen to some extent, Commodus was particularly conspicuous in his promotion of freedmen at the perceived expense of senators.

This, like his policy of making peace with the tribes north of the Danube, caused considerable indignation in elite aristocratic circles, particularly due to its contrast with Marcus’s modus operandi.

Conspiracy From Within

While some historians have accredited Commodus with a callous and capricious disposition since childhood, many have pointed to the assassination attempt against him in 181 CE as an important factor in his suspicious and infamous behavior as emperor.

The attempt may have had a particularly strong effect on Commodus because it was orchestrated by his sister Lucilla (depicted in Gladiator by Connie Nielsen). Although Commodus would subsequently believe that it was a senatorially inspired attempt, most ancient sources attribute it to Lucilla’s jealousy and her desire to increase her standing.

While there may be some truth to this, especially as Lucilla was once, in effect, an empress-consort to Lucius Verus, it is also likely that she had some backing from senatorial circles. Either way, she used her apparent lovers, Marcus Ummidius Quadratus and Appius Claudius Quintianus, to carry out the deed. Both were caught, with the latter trying to kill Commodus when he entered a theater.

These two conspirators were soon executed, and Lucilla was exiled to the island of Capri and later also executed. After this, Commodus began to distrust many of those close to him or in powerful positions, leading to a series of violent purges based on apparently dubious evidence.

While this trail of blood was being made, Commodus neglected many of his duties as emperor, delegating responsibilities to a coterie of avaricious and iniquitous advisors, especially the prefects in charge of the Praetorian Guard, the emperor’s personal bodyguards.

While these advisors were carrying out their own campaigns of violence and extortion, Commodus focused his efforts on the arenas and amphitheaters of Rome. In complete disregard for his position as emperor, Commodus regularly rode in chariot races and fought many times against maimed gladiators or drugged beasts, usually in private but often in public as well.

For many, especially in the aristocracy, this was an occupation well below the standards expected of an emperor. This impropriety, combined with the fact that the fights were staged or heavily adjusted to favor Commodus, only added to the farce.

In the midst of this increasingly erratic turn, there was another notable assassination attempt on the emperor Commodus, this time initiated by Publius Salvius Julianus, son of a prominent jurist in Rome. Like the previous attempt, it was quite easily foiled and the conspirator executed. Nevertheless, it amplified Commodus’s suspicion of everyone around him.

Rule by Prefects

Soon after these plots against his life, Commodus endowed his favorites and prefects with immense power. The most notorious of these were the freedman Saetorus and the Praetorian Prefects, Perrenis and Cleander. Each is said to have extracted as much as they could from their respective positions of power, as Commodus gave up interest in the proper running of the Empire.

However, Commodus’s favorites were never completely secure in their power. In 182 CE, Saetorus was implicated in a plot against Commodus by the Prefect Perennis and killed by Cleander, another Prefect who was himself a former freedman.

This opened the door to Perennis’s ascendancy, who took charge of all the emperor’s correspondence, putting him in a very powerful and influential position. In this role, he gave away a prodigious number of gifts to various sycophants and prominent personages, especially in the military, in order to expand his power base.

Whether true or not, Perennis was then implicated in a plot against Commodus by none other than his prior accomplice Cleander. Perennis and his sons were executed on the orders of the emperor, leaving Cleander to fill the revolving vacuum of power that punctuated the chaotic Roman court at this time.

At around this time (in 184/5 CE), Cleander made himself responsible for almost all public offices. When he had done so, he abandoned all propriety by selling entry to the senate, army commands, governorships, and consulships to the highest bidders.

Part of the reason this profligate behavior was allowed relatively unhindered was because Commodus had secluded himself in his private estates after yet another assassination attempt, this time by a soldier named Maternus. The latter had reportedly come from a disgruntled legion in the province of Gaul, which at this time was witnessing a lot of unrest, along with the German provinces next to it.

With Commodus removing himself further from public life, Cleander was provided with the opportunity to aggrandize himself without restraint. The other Praetorian Prefect, Atilius Aebutianus, was removed without contest, leaving Cleander the sole Prefect and the de facto ruler of the state.

He continued his corruption, selling public offices and alienating much of the aristocracy around him. As a result, when Rome was hit by the early signs of an impending famine in 190 CE, a magistrate responsible for the food supply pointed the angry and hungry mob towards Cleander, who he said was to blame.

Cleander was chased out of the city to Commodus’s private estate, where the people demanded the Prefect’s head. Commodus seemingly realized his mistake in allowing others to rule in his stead, had Cleander executed, and decided to again take up the mantle of emperorship, with notoriously disastrous results.

Commodus the Gladiator and God

When Commodus came back to the political fore, it was clear that he had grand, and perhaps insane, ambitions for his legacy. Much of his subsequent political agenda revolved around making himself the center of Roman religious, cultural, and social life in increasingly eccentric ways.

An event that seemingly accelerated this megalomania was the fire of Rome in 191/2 CE, which engulfed large parts of the city. Although Commodus acted reasonably quickly to address the problem, he also decided to use the opportunity to almost sacrilegiously recategorize Rome as a colony, renaming it after himself: Colonia Lucia Aurelia Commodiana.

To complement this great and obscene honor he had bestowed on himself, he added a number of mythical or divine titles to his nomenclature, including Amazonius, Herculius, and Exsuperatorius. In the process, he asserted that a new “Golden Age” was upon the Roman people, overseen by a divine ruler.

Indeed, the title “Exsuperatorius” most strikingly and absurdly associated him with Jupiter, king of the Roman Gods. To complement this array of elaborate titles, he was reported to appear always adorned with golden clothes befitting a god. He also began to dress up as Hercules, the eastern God Mithras, and the sun god Sol.

This establishment of a divine personality cult was propagated and propounded not only through his titles and clothing but also through coinage, statues, and architecture. Moreover, he changed the name of each month of the year to one of his own (now) twelve names, just as he renamed the fleets and legions of the Empire after himself as well.

To top all of this off, he famously decided to appear in the Colosseum dressed as Hercules, fighting staged battles and maiming victims. In the process, he had turned Rome into his personal playground, presenting himself as a divine ruler without equal or precedent.

Death and Legacy 

As we have seen, such unrestrained self-indulgence naturally alienated many segments of society, who did not wish to endorse Commodus’s new “Golden Age” or his violent purges of the aristocracy. While many assassination attempts had failed, it seemed inevitable that one would eventually succeed.

As such, when the emperor’s mistress Marcia found a “kill list” with her name and the two Praetorian Prefects, Laetus and Eclectus, on it, they formed a preemptive plot. They decided that the best method would be to poison the emperor’s food, selecting New Year’s Eve, 192 CE, as the day to administer the poison.

However, the poison was not properly ingested as Commodus threw up most of his food, made vague threats, and then decided to take a bath. Not to be deterred, the three conspirators then decided to send Commodus’s wrestling partner, Narcissus, to finish the job. Creeping up on Commodus while he bathed, the wrestler strangled Commodus to death, ending his reign in a fittingly ignominious and violent manner.

Following his death, his memory was ordered to be expunged from all records and dedications, a process known as Damnatio Memoriae, as the Empire devolved into a protracted civil war. Even when order was eventually restored under Septimius Severus, the Empire never again reached the heights of Nerva-Antonine stability and prosperity.

It is no surprise that “Commodus the Gladiator Emperor” is viewed so negatively as an “evil emperor.” Though some revisionist historians have attempted to reimagine Commodus as the victim of senatorial envy and intrigue, it is difficult to disregard the litany of crimes and absurd policies attributed to him.

To completely reverse his father’s policies at home and on the frontiers was bound to cause negative effects, just as his perverse attempts to establish himself as a living god were sure to cause controversy. When compared with his close predecessors, there were very few policies, whether judicial, economic, or military, that were particularly praiseworthy.

It is, therefore, safe to say that Commodus truly was a terrible emperor, and very possibly an insane one.

The Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense) was established in Oakland, California in 1966 by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale. The party was active between 1966 and 1982 across the US, with a separate branch in Algeria, created after tensions led to a split in the party. Although remembered in history as a militant, hypermasculine and violent group of black men, the party made real change through their work within black communities, especially with their social programs.

How Was the Black Panther Party Founded?

Black unity was at the core of the party with an emphasis, especially from Newton, on black self-determination. The Wretched of the Earth, written by Frantz Fanon, who argues for a violent struggle against oppressors, was regarded as essential reading for party members.

Newton and Seale wanted to develop a lifeline for the people by serving their needs and defending them from their oppressors- they viewed violence as an organizational tool and created programs that raised consciousness. Party members understood that to maximize the potential of the black community, personal safety, nourishment and adequate healthcare were of great importance.[1]

To facilitate this, Newton and Seale developed and organized the party around a Ten Point Program which outlined points which they believed were essential to change the system permanently. This included an end to police brutality, decent housing and education and full employment. [2]

By the end of 1968, the party had established around 38 chapters across the US and had become notorious for its violent rhetoric and the use of arms for defense.

How Did the Party Support Black Communities?

Although initially created as a defense against police brutality, the party was always more than just its violent reputation. The party set up 65 social programs between 1966 and 1982, ranging from a Free Breakfast for Children Program (FBCP) to Free Health Clinics to a Free Busing to Prisons Program. These types of assistance were designed to improve areas which were lacking for many black people, especially education, healthcare and employment.

The FBCP was initiated in every chapter of the party and fed thousands of children daily before school as well as educating the children about black history and culture and informed them of current events. [3] The party also tried to improve the voter registration numbers of black people and included registration forms in food bags. Further to this, groundbreaking research was conducted on Sickle Cell Anemia, a disorder which affects African Americans, through organized screenings and blood sample tests carried out by the party.

The social programs were created not just to help the day-to-day needs of the black community but to educate, inform and to empower. Seale described the objective of the programs as educating the masses to the politics of the changing system. [4]

What Was Their Relationship With the FBI?

By 1968, the Black Panther Party was viewed as “the greatest threat to the internal security of the country” and they began to receive attention from the FBI.[5] The program COINTELPRO, directed by J. Edgar Hoover, turned its attention to black nationalist groups with the Los Angeles chapter one of the most affected.

The FBI was responsible for the deaths of two Panthers, Mark Clark and Fred Hampton. In 1969, Hampton, who was the head of the Chicago Panthers, was given a sedative by an FBI Agent before the police fired into his apartment where he and Clark were sleeping. The attack was initially described as a battle, but the Panthers only fired one bullet. The murders were part of a long line of plans to eliminate the party.

What Issues Did the Party Face?

Newton and Eldridge Cleaver (who joined shortly after it was founded) differed in their ideological beliefs which created ongoing tensions. Cleaver was not interested in helping black communities but was in search of a manhood symbol. In 1969, he fled to Algeria to escape imprisonment and while there set up his own branch and used this to attack the Panthers and their work back in the US. Cleaver was eventually expelled from the Party in 1970.

As a hypermasculine party is it not surprising that sexism was a particularly prominent issue, especially under the leadership of Cleaver who believed women should be submissive. Women in the party often held positions to ‘fit’ their gender such as cooking and cleaning and they were also subject to sexual harassment resulting in some women leaving the party.

Homophobia also affected chapters of the party and was also particularly prominent under Cleaver, but less so under Newton. Members of the party often used homophobic language, with Cleaver calling the FBCP a “sissy program.” [6] Although the party never expressly excluded gay people, the party’s homophobia did affect their stability as an organization.

Despite the real change it facilitated, the party was subject to attacks and counterintelligence activities from the FBI and suffered internal issues with sexism, homophobia and differing beliefs which weakened it and contributed to its decline.

Sources:

[1] Ryan J. Kirkby, ‘The Revolution Will Not Be Televised’: Community Activism and the Black Panther Party 1966-1971′, Canadian Review of American Studies, Vol 41, No.1 (2011) p.33.

[2]https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/primary-documents-african-american-history/black-panther-party-ten-point-program-1966/

[3] Ryan J. Kirkby, ‘The Revolution Will Not Be Televised’: Community Activism and the Black Panther Party 1966-1971′, Canadian Review of American Studies, Vol 41, No.1 (2011) p.46.

[4] Bobby Seale, Seize the Time: The Story of The Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (Second Edition), (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1991), p.413.

[5] https://www.upi.com/Archives/1969/07/16/J-Edgar-Hoover-Black-Panther-Greatest-Threat-to-US-Security/1571551977068/

[6] Interview with Bobby Seale, by Blackside Inc, 4 November 1988 for Eyes on the Prize.

While the United States is a young country, it has a fascinating history that has been documented in various locations around the East Coast. These top ten destinations will give you an unparalleled snapshot of the events, people, and places that shaped the country and let you step back in time. You’ll get a better understanding of what makes the American national identity unique and a greater appreciation for the country as a whole.

1. Castillo de San Marcos, St Augustine, Florida

The Sunshine State of Florida has one of the most important historical landmarks in the nation: Castillo de San Marcos in historic Saint Augustine. Designed as a fort to protect the city, Castillo de San Marcos dominates the city’s waterfront and is a 450-year-old relic that you can explore on foot. The fort regularly hosts re-enactments and events and has been under Spanish, American, and British rule at various times during its active operation. It was also a stronghold for the rebel Confederate Army during the United States Civil War.

Many visitors prefer to include the Castillo de San Marcos in a larger Saint Augustine itinerary, as there are plenty of additional places of historical relevance within the city. The famous Fountain of Youth is another large draw.

2. The Freedom Trail, Boston, Massachusetts

It would be difficult to find too many places with more historical relevance than Boston, Massachusetts. From the myriad of amazing artifacts to the fantastic Freedom Trail, where you can literally walk in the footsteps of the Founding Fathers, Boston truly has everything a history lover could want or need.

The Freedom Trail is a relatively easy trek that spans two and a half miles and gives you a fantastic snapshot of Boston’s most important historical landmarks. You’ll find a total of sixteen on the Freedom Trail, and each tells the story of Boston’s epic place in American history. From the site of Paul Revere’s famous ride to the Old North Church, where the beginnings of the American democratic experiment were first dreamt up, it’s a must-visit destination.

3. Liberty Bell, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Few symbols in American history hold as much literal and figurative weight as the Liberty Bell. This enormous brass bell with its iconic crack has come to symbolize what so many of us hold dear about the United States. Although it now rests in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Liberty Bell was once hung in pride of place in Independence Hall and, according to legend, cracked the first time it was struck.

The inscription on the Liberty Bell is also iconic, saying, “proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof,” which was seized upon by abolitionists as a justification for ending chattel slavery.

4. Salem, Massachusetts

The Salem Witch Trials were a notorious American panic that terrorized the East Coast town of Salem and subjected many of its residents to horrific violence in the name of eliminating witchcraft from the land. Anyone interested in the macabre and grim history of the United States should certainly make a pilgrimage to Salem. There are multiple guided tours available, and the Salem Witch Museum has plenty of artifacts and first-hand testimonies of what happened during those dark days.

The story of Salem is the tale of the perils of widespread delusion and panic, with essential history lessons to guide people today. Additionally, Salem is a charming city with a lovely harbor, plenty of great places to grab a bite to eat, and lovely little bed and breakfasts where you can make the most of your weekend.

5. Williamsburg, Virginia

Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia is an utterly wholesome place and one of the most important East Coast sites regarding early colonial history. A massive early economic engine for the colonies, Williamsburg was a hot spot for the early days of the United States, and much of it is preserved and ready to be explored today.

Step back into the 1700s with real-life re-enactments, culinary demonstrations, and events running all year round. As a living history museum, visitors are able to fully immerse themselves in all of the joys that Williamsburg has to offer and truly get an authentic feel for how our forefathers and foremothers lived. Williamsburg is great any time of year, but it especially shines during the Thanksgiving holidays, when it comes alive with mouthwatering food and plenty of exhibits and events.

6. Plimoth Plantation, Plymouth, Massachusetts

When one thinks of early American culture, Plymouth and the Pilgrims might leap directly to mind. These first settlers first landed at Plymouth Rock in 1620 and are embedded in American lore in the form of guests to the first Thanksgiving.

Since Plymouth Rock is the most enduring American story, it’s no surprise that this noble attraction is a must-see on the East Coast, but you shouldn’t miss the Plimoth Plantation either. Like Williamsburg, the Plimoth Plantation is a living museum that allows visitors to get a peek at what life would have looked like for the early American colonists. With actors, demonstrations, and plenty of artifacts and relics, this spot is certainly the real deal.

7. The Battery, Charleston, South Carolina

With haunting and beautiful scenery, lush gardens, and plenty of historical relevance, The Battery is easily one of South Carolina’s most iconic spots. This defensive institution kept the area safe and was a pivotal point during the American Civil War. What makes this area so intriguing is its combination of classic gardens and strategic structures, like cannons dotting the promenade.

You’ll also enjoy amazing views of the Charleston Harbor and be close to another fantastic historical destination, Fort Sumter, where you can explore Civil War history. The Battery is also free to visit, so it’s an economical and fascinating option for history lovers.

8. Washington D.C. Mall

Washington, D.C., is perhaps most famously known as the home to many U.S. presidents and easily the epicenter for all American politics. The famous Washington D.C. Mall is the best spot for you to see and experience it all, with fantastic monuments like the Lincoln Memorial, Martin Luther King Jr. Monument, Washington Monument, Vietnam Memorial, and more.

Plan to spend at least the whole day at the Mall, especially since there are multiple museums and different monuments that you can check out for free. Visitors interested in a White House tour will want to make their reservations in advance, as this is one of the most popular things to do in Washington, D.C. 

9. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania

The legacy of the Battle of Gettysburg is one of the most fascinating stories of the Civil War, with Union and Confederate forces congregating for the single bloodiest battle. As such, Gettysburg is a hotbed of hauntings, a deeply important historical destination, and a must-visit spot for anyone interested in military and American history.

In addition to the famous battle, it’s also the spot where Abraham Lincoln gave his famous Gettysburg Address, which cemented his resolve to keep the Union intact. Anyone interested in the Civil War and its legacy should make it a point to visit Gettysburg.

10. Statue of Liberty, New York

The Statue of Liberty is steeped in deep meaning and stands for some of the most enduring American values like liberty and freedom. This iconic symbol sits in the New York Harbor and greeted immigrants as they first sailed into the United States. Every American, history buff or not, should make a journey to the Statue of Liberty to see this ultimate symbol for themselves and also to marvel at the views over the harbor.

This statue was a gift from the French and crafted by Frederic Auguste Bartholdi and Gustave Eiffel, who also created one of France’s most memorable icons, the Eiffel Tower.

These ten iconic historical landmarks will enhance your understanding of American history and provide deep context into the people, places, and situations that built the country. From the sunny shores of Florida to the chilly harbor of New York City, they are all worth seeing. Plus, many of these landmarks are surrounded by other interesting historical and cultural things to do, so you can maximize your time while learning vital facts about history.

When we think of Greek gods, we call to mind names like Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades, the powerful Olympian gods that each ruled over different aspects of reality and the cosmos. Zeus had dominion over the sky and heavens, Poseidon over the seas and all waters, and Hades over the Underworld and the dead. But before the Olympians took power, there was another generation of gods, the Titans. While the Titans were generally thought of as cruel gods, the era in which they ruled was still considered a Golden Age. An age that ended with the rise of the Olympians.

Titans: Children of Earth and Heaven

Before the Olympians, so named because they made their home on Mount Olympus, there were the Titans, the offspring of the primordial gods of the earth and sky, Gaia and Ouranos. It was Ouranos himself who gave his children this name after they had violently usurped him, cursing them and warning them of the inevitable retribution that awaited them.

In Hesiod’s Theogony, the poet gave the title “Titans” as derived from the words “τιταίνω,” meaning “to strain,” and “τίσις,” meaning “vengeance” or “retribution.” Though modern scholars dismiss this as folk etymology, Hesiod’s presentation of these early deities characterizes them in this light and sets up the narrative to follow.

It is now generally accepted that the story of the Titans originated in the Near East, modern-day Turkey, as it has strong parallels with the earlier Hurro-Hittite story of Kumarbi, specifically the succession myths from Ouranos to Kronos, commonly transliterated to the Latinized form Cronus, and then from Kronos to Zeus.

Elder Titans

Hesiod’s Theogony is the earliest reference to the name Titans, and in it, he gives the title to specific children of Ouranos and Gaia. Oceanus, the god of the world-encircling river Oceanus, which is the origin of all fresh waters. The name is used to denote both the god and the place, much like Hades refers to both the god and the underworld. Koios, the god of intelligence and the axis of heaven. Krios, the god of constellations; Iapetus, god of mortality; Hyperion, god of light and the cycles of day and night. Kronos, the youngest son and god of time. Theia, the goddess of light and sight. Rhea, the goddess of female fertility. Themis, the goddess of law, order, and prophecy. Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory and language. Tethys, the goddess of nursing and fresh water. Finally, Phoebe, the goddess of intellect and prophecy.

While later authors add more to this list, Ouranos called his children Titans as a curse rather than a generational distinction. Proof of this lies in the fact that Gaia and Ouranos’ other children, the Cyclopes, the Hundredhanders, the Furies, and even Aphrodite, if Hesiod’s version of her birth is to be believed, are not considered Titans. Once they came into power, the Titans ordered the world as they saw fit, marrying each other and having more divine children.

Younger Titans

Later Greek authors added more names to the list of Titans, including the immediate descendants of the twelve laid out in Hesiod’s narrative, consequently changing the meaning of the term to refer to the generation of gods that preceded the Olympians.

Among the most famous younger Titans are the sons of Iapetus and Klymene. Prometheus was the god who created mankind and stole fire from Zeus for them. For this transgression, he was punished by being chained on top of the Caucasus Mountains, and an eagle set on him to eat out his liver every day. His brother Epimetheus became the husband of Pandora. His daughter, Pyrrha, helped to save humanity from a great flood. The third brother, Atlas, held up the heavens.

Other notables are the children of Hyperion and Theia: Helios, Selene, and Eos. Helios was the all-seeing god of the sun and played a role in the myth of Aphrodite’s affair with Ares. Selene was the goddess of the moon and the cycle of months. She was said to have nursed the Nemean Lion, which Herakles killed as one of his labors. Selene also sent the gadfly that caused Ampelos, a lover of Dionysus, to be thrown from the back of a bull and trampled to death. Eos was the goddess of the dawn, whom Aphrodite cursed with a constant passion for sleeping with Ares. Eos once fell in love with Orion and carried him off to Delos, the sacred island of Apollo. There, Orion was killed by Artemis, either because of jealousy or because he challenged her to a discus contest.

Castration of Ouranos

Gaia had six more children by Ouranos. These were the Cyclopes, so named because of the singular round eye in the center of their foreheads, and the Hecatoncheires, also called Hundredhanders, Kottos, Gyges, and Briareus. They each had 100 arms and 50 heads sprouting atop their shoulders. Ouranos was so disgusted with these children that as soon as they were born, he hid them away deep within Gaia, causing her a great amount of pain. She crafted an adamantine sickle and begged her other children to help her against their father. Only Kronos took up the task; the rest were seized with fear.

Gaia hid Kronos, gave him the sickle, and told him of her plan. Then he waited. The next time Ouranos visited Gaia, Kronos sprung out of his hiding place and sliced off his father’s genitals with the sickle, then threw them into the sea. The blood that spilled into the Earth gave birth to the Furies, avenging gods that specifically punish acts of familial violence, and the Giants, or Gigantes, meaning Earthborn. The castrated genitals formed white foam in the sea and washed ashore on Cyprus. Aphrodite was born from the foam.

While Hesiod wrote that Kronos acted alone, Apollodorus wrote that all the children of Ouranos, except for Oceanus, perpetrated the assault. Regardless, Ouranos blamed all of his children and dubbed them Titans.

Wrestling Control of Heaven

Most versions of the Titan myth have Kronos taking immediate control in the wake of his father’s castration, but other authors have cited another divine couple that ruled before Kronos: Ophion and Eurynome. The story likely comes from the Orphic tradition, a mystery cult centered on the resurrection of Dionysus and the songs of Orpheus.

In the Argonautica by Apollonios of Rhodes, the author tells of a song by Orpheus that Ophion and Eurynome, the daughter of Oceanus, were said to be the first rulers of the world. They had their rule wrestled away by Kronos and Rhea and were both cast into the waters of Oceanus. At this time, Zeus had been born, but was still a child hiding in the Dictean Cave, meaning that Kronos did not take power immediately after castrating his father. The throne from which Zeus eventually rules is even called Ophion’s throne.

There is debate, however, over whether the name Ophion is being used to refer to a different god. He has been equated with either Ouranos or Oceanus, and Eurynome with either Gaia or Tethys. If they equate with Ouranos and Gaia then the story parallels Hesiod’s narrative, except for when they are cast into Oceanus. Since theogonies and cosmogonies seek to explain the ordering of the world, it makes little sense to have the personifications of earth and sky exiled to the fringes since, metaphorically, that would mean the earth and sky were exiled from the current order of the world. If Ophion and Eurynome equate with Oceanus and Tethys, that would either imply that they were the first rulers of the cosmos and not Ouranos and Gaia, or that they ruled in the immediate aftermath of Ouranos’ castration.

A comparison of Ophion and Eurynome has also been made with Typhoeus and Echidna, two monstrous beings that spawned a family of monsters prevalent in Greek myth like the Hydra, Sphinx, Chimera, and Cerberus. In Pherecydes’ Theogony, the eternal god of time, Chronos, a different deity to Kronos, fought a war against Ophion and his children by Eurynome. The name Ophion suggests a serpentine form, and Eurynome, if she is the same daughter of Oceanus that was worshipped in Phigalia, has the form of a mermaid. It is only natural then that their children would have similar forms.

Birth of the Olympians

Kronos had six children with his sister-wife Rhea. They were Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and finally Zeus. Kronos feared a prophecy told to him by his parents that he would be overthrown by one of his own sons. In order to avoid this prophecy, Kronos swallowed down each of his children the moment they were born. This caused Rhea great distress, and when she was about to give birth to Zeus, she asked her parents, Gaia and Ouranos, to help her devise a plan to save her sons and get vengeance on Kronos. Rhea was whisked away to Crete to give birth in secret, and, in place of the baby Zeus, Kronos was given a swaddled stone, which he promptly gulped down. When Zeus grew into adulthood, he, together with Rhea and Gaia, convinced Kronos to regurgitate his siblings.

Titanomachy

Together with his siblings, Zeus waged a decade-long war against Kronos and the Titans, which was known as the Titanomachy. The most common and complete version of the Titanomachy comes from Hesiod’s Theogony, in which Zeus and his siblings rose up against Kronos over his treatment of his father, Ouranos, and his uncles, the Cyclopes and Hundredhanders.

The first thing Zeus did was free his uncles, the Cyclopes and Hundredhanders, and recruited them to his side. The Hundredhanders hurled massive stones at the Titan army, and the battle that ensued shook the earth from high Olympus down to Tartarus. Zeus then joined the fray, wielding the thunderbolt that had been given to him by the Cyclopes. Together, they cast the Titans into Tartarus and chained them. Zeus set the Hundredhanders to guard them and had Poseidon fix a gate of bronze to keep them contained.

But the divine feuding did not end. Gaia then birthed Typhoeus, a monstrous and serpentine being with a multitude of voice and the ability to shoot fire from his eyes. The common belief was that he was born to avenge the treatment of the Titans by the Olympians, though there is no textual evidence to suggest this. Zeus fought against Typhoeus and, after a hard struggle, smote him with the thunderbolt. With no more contenders to the throne, Zeus took up his place as king of gods and men

King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. Their love story is often overshadowed by their plenteous troubles. Catherine’s many miscarriages, King Henry’s numerous affairs, their shared inability to create an heir to the throne, his ongoing and obsessive pursuit of Anne Boleyn, and his split from the Roman Catholic Church. These are just a few of the things for which Henry and Catherine are now best remembered.

Perhaps it is time to forget these problems for a moment and instead, venture back to the very beginning of their 25-year marriage.  In this article, we will reimagine the loyal, love-struck 17-year-old King and his beautiful 23-year-old bride. We will attempt to understand their relationship as it appeared at the very height of their happiness.

Catherine Of Aragon: Wife Number One

“Divorced, beheaded, died; divorced, beheaded, survived.” 

In this catchy jingle, Catherine of Aragon is represented by the first word — divorced. Partly thanks to rhymes such as these, Catherine’s memory has been tainted permanently by her ultimate undoing.

She was the woman who married Prince Henry’s brother, Arthur Tudor. She was the woman who, seven years and one royal death later, married the newly styled King Henry. She was the woman who failed to provide England with an heir; the woman who lost her youth, beauty, and fertility; the woman who lost her husband to Anne Boleyn; the woman who accidentally prompted the split between the Roman Catholic Church and Reformation England.

Yes, this is how Catherine of Aragon is remembered in the 21st century. But originally, back in the year 1509, and before any of these woes had occurred, she was known as something else altogether. She was the woman who held King Henry’s heart. She was the woman who was the undoubted love of his life.

But with 21st-century hindsight, we may now perceive that when it comes to the question of which of King Henry’s wives was his favorite, Catherine of Aragon had more than a little competition.

As we now know, Catherine of Aragon was the first in a long line of women to have the honor of being called King Henry’s wife and Queen of England. Little did she know at the beginning of her marriage, five women (Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr) were all yet to take her place.

But she needn’t have been too concerned; all the other wives would suffer a similar fate to her. Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard would be beheaded. Jane Seymour suffered an agonizing death in childbirth. Anne of Cleeves would share in Catherine’s misfortune by way of Royal divorce. Catherine Parr would survive King Henry but would die a year later, nonetheless.

But before all these well-known 16th-century events occurred, Catherine of Aragon and her husband had much happiness to experience. She was married to King Henry for nearly 25 years. The wedding took place on the 11th of June in 1509, in the Queen’s Closet at Greenwich Palace.

According to the Calendar of State Papers, King Henry was asked, “Most illustrious Prince, is it your will to fulfil the treaty of marriage concluded by your father, the late King of England, and the parents of the Princess of Wales, the King and Queen of Spain; and as the Pope has dispensed with this marriage, to take the Princess who is here present for your lawful wife?” King Henry answered, “I will.” Catherine was asked the same, and she also gave her consent.

At the time of their wedding, Catherine was already considered to be much older than King Henry. She was 23, and he was just about to turn 18. However, although she had suffered much hardship since the death of her first husband, Arthur Tudor, she was still more than capable of holding the attention of the young and energetic King Henry.

The month of June—probably the most significant of King Henry’s life—continued in a similar fashion. The newlywed couple were crowned king and queen of England in a joint ceremony at Westminster Abbey just a few weeks later, on the 24th of June. Four days following that, King Henry celebrated his birthday.

So, how long did this happy union actually last? Well, that would depend on who you were talking to. King Henry would say that it ended with their annulment on the 23rd of May in 1533. However, Catherine would almost certainly maintain that she had been his true and legitimate wife from the moment they took their vows until the moment she took her last breath in 1536.

Whichever way you look at it, the fact remains that King Henry was married to Catherine of Aragon for a longer length of time than he was married to his other five wives put together. Throughout this marriage, as far as we know, Catherine of Aragon was pregnant six times. She miscarried a daughter at approximately six months in 1510. On the 22nd of February in 1511, Henry, her firstborn son, died suddenly after just one month of life. Her second and third sons were either miscarried or stillborn in September 1513 and then December 1514.

On the 18th of February in 1516, Mary, her first surviving child and future queen of England was born.

To find out more about Catherine of Aragon and her relationship with King Henry, we must first look back to her early life, and attempt to discover what made her the woman and queen she later became.

The Spanish Infanta: The Early Years of Catherine of Aragon

Catherine of Aragon was born in the early hours of the morning on the 16th of December, 1485. Her life began at the Archbishop’s Palace of Alcala de Henares near Madrid. This mighty residence had been commissioned nearly 300 years earlier, in 1209, by Archbishop Ximenez de Rada, as a temporary home of the Archbishops of Toledo.

At the moment of her birth, Catherine of Aragon was granted one of her most famous titles; Infanta of Spain. In both Spain and Portugal, this Royal honor is usually granted to every child of a reigning Monarch. In Spain, unlike other European Monarchies, only the heir to the throne had the right to be called Prince or Princess. In 1368, it had been stated by Royal Decree that “the children of the King who do not have the status of Prince of Princess of Asturias and the children of the said Prince or Princess are Infantas of Spain, and receive the style of Royal Highness.”

Catherine of Aragon’s lineage was impressive to say the least. Her father was King Ferdinand II of Aragon and her mother was his wife, Isabella I of Castile. Together, Ferdinand and Isabella were the ultimate power in 16th-century Europe.

Catherine also shared close relations with the English Royal family and she was descended on her mother’s side from the House of Lancaster. Catherine’s great-grandmother was Catherine of Lancaster, and her great-great-grandmother was Philipa of Lancaster.

Philipa of Lancaster was a daughter of John of Gaunt, and therefore a granddaughter of King Edward III of England. This means that Catherine of Aragon was the third cousin of her future father-in-law, King Henry VII of England, and a fourth cousin of her future mother-in-law, Queen Elizabeth of York.

Catherine of Aragon was the fourth and last child in the Aragon-Castile nursery, and consequently, she grew up as the youngest member of the Spanish Royal family. Her siblings were Isabella (1470-1498), John Princes of Asturias (1478-1497), Joanna future Queen of Castile (1479-1555), and Maria (1482-1517).

Catherine of Aragon made her first appearance before ambassadors from England on a notable day in March 1489, at the age of just three. Two Englishmen, named Richard Nanfan and Thomas Savage, were being presented to Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile at Medina del Campo in the Province of Valladolid.

Surrounded by 14 Maids of Honor, Catherine’s elder sister danced for the ambassadors in the hope of impressing them with their courtly skills. The following day, the whole royal nursery was present at a bullfight, during which Catherine was reported to have watched from her mother’s lap.

Catherine of Aragon spent much of her later childhood in the schoolroom. Her tutor was Alessandro Geraldini (1455-1524), who worked as a Clerk in Holy Orders but is now best remembered as a humanist scholar.

During her time with Geraldini, Catherine of Aragon studied and became proficient in a wide range of subjects. She studied the academic subjects of arithmetic, canon law, and civil law. She also studied the classics, classical literature, philosophy, and mythology and she studied languages — French, Greek, Castilian Spanish. She studied the past: history, heraldry, and genealogy.

Catherine of Aragon even learned the traditional, domestic skills: embroidery, cooking, lace making, sewing, spinning, music, dancing, and drawing.

Obviously, she was carefully educated in good manners and court etiquette. Like all children, Catherine enjoyed some subjects more than others. The great scholar Erasmus stated that she “loved good literature which she had studied with success since childhood.”

It was thanks to her enviable education and exceptional ability that Catherine of Aragon, of all of the wives of King Henry VIII, was the best prepared for life as queen of England.

Of course, it was originally not Henry Tudor but Arthur Tudor whose Queen she was supposed to have been. That, perhaps, is a story for another day.

Was She the Favorite? Five Pieces of Evidence 

Although we will never be able to determine to what extent King Henry loved Catherine of Aragon, (we can hardly ask him now), what we can do is attempt to delve deeper into his thoughts and feelings by examining the historical evidence we do have.

Firstly, King Henry was known to adore beautiful women, and Catherine of Aragon was reported to have possessed great beauty.

Unfortunately and extremely unfairly, Catherine of Aragon is often remembered as a woman who lost the affection of her husband upon growing older and losing her youthful appearance.

It should be noted that, in her youth, Catherine was described as “the most beautiful creature in the world.” It was said that there was “nothing lacking in her that the most beautiful girls should have.” Thomas More reflected that “there were few women who could compete with Queen Catherine in her prime.”

King Henry and Catherine of Aragon were well-matched in the way of appearances. In her book, The Six Wives Of King Henry VIII, the historian Alison Weir describes King Henry as “a man of great physical beauty; he was magnificent to look upon, being lean and muscular, with an extremely fine calf to his leg, of which he was inordinately proud.” Eustace Chapuys also commented on the King’s appearance, stating that “there is no finer youth in the world.”

Secondly, King Henry publicly proclaimed his affection for Catherine.

On the first day of January in 1511, Catherine of Aragon was safely delivered to the Prince. The Tudor Court broke forth into celebration, and King Henry spared no expense when planning his festivities. The Royal couple called their baby Henry and gave him the title of Duke of Cornwall from his birth.

One fact that is particularly relevant to King Henry and Catherine’s love story is how he chose to style himself during this period. In typical Tudor fashion, he considered that there would be no better way to mark the arrival of his first living son than with a joust. He went as far as to put on the most magnificent jousting display of his entire reign.

Making several signs of devotion to his wife, King Henry dressed in Catherine’s colors, rode out with the initials H&C on his armor, and even tilted under the name Sir Loyal Heart. These three things combined sent one clear message to the Court: he was Catherine’s husband, and he loved her deeply.

The third piece of evidence: King Henry trusted her as regent.

Catherine of Aragon was one of two wives King Henry trusted enough to leave in charge of the kingdom in his absence. Most notably, in 1513, Catherine served competently as regent for six months while King Henry was away in France. She certainly did her husband proud; during her regency, she oversaw an English victory against Scotland at the Battle of Flodden. It was a difficult but successful period of Catherine’s life.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica tells us that “for some years the couple lived happily; Catherine matched the breadth of her husband’s intellectual interests, and she was a competent regent while he was campaigning against the French” (1512-14). 

The fourth piece of evidence is that King Henry listened to Catherine of Aragon’s advice and responded to her pleas.

On the morning of the 5th of May in 1517, a crowd of nearly 300 recently arrested men were brought by force into Westminster Hall to attend an audience with King Henry. All these men had one thing in common: they had all taken part in the May Day riots just four hours earlier. Once gathered together, all they could do was await Royal judgment, and pray that their punishment would not be too severe.

King Henry immediately declared that he would condemn all 300 men to death. However, there was a woman present at Westminster Hall who had the courage to go against her husband’s decision and suggest an alternative.

Seeing the sorrow and fear that had consumed the crowd, Catherine of Aragon decided to make an appeal. As easily as if it had been rehearsed, she stood, walked slowly to the King, stood directly before the throne, fell to her knees, and proceeded to beg for compassion on behalf of the men.

Eventually, King Henry relented and agreed to change his mind. He announced that only 15 of the 300 should be executed and that only the men responsible for starting the riot would be condemned to death.

When the announcement was made, the crowd jumped for joy and cheered for mercy. 

Finally, the fifth piece of evidence: King Henry mourned her after her death.

Catherine of Aragon died at Kimbolton Castle in January 1536. The following day, news of her death reached King Henry, Anne Boleyn, and the rest of the Tudor Court.

Eustace Chapuys, the Spanish Ambassador, reported that King Henry wore yellow. This fact could be interpreted in two ways; either he was celebrating the news with bright colors traditionally associated with happiness, or he was showing his respect by wearing the traditional color of mourning in Spain. As King Henry is known to have wept privately for her death, we may consider the latter suggestion as a more likely reason for his choice.

The Death and Legacy of Catherine of Aragon

Catherine of Aragon died on the 7th of January 1536. In the early hours of the morning, sensing what was soon to come, Catherine had requested the company of her priest. George de Athequa, the Bishop of Llandaff, had listened to the final confession of his mistress and administered communion. It is also believed that during these final hours of Catherine’s, de Athequa helped her compose her final letter to King Henry.

It was in this final letter that she wrote powerfully of her undying love for King Henry. “The hour of my death now drawing on,” she began, “the tender love I owe you forces me, my case being such, to commend myself to you.” She spoke of her forgiveness for his sins against her, stating “I pardon you everything, and wish to devoutly pray God that he will pardon you also.” She finished her letter with the words, “Lastly, I make this vow, that mine eyes desire you above all things.” She signed herself “Catherine the Queen.”

We do not know whether this letter was well received by King Henry, but we may imagine that these words may very well have brought tears, guilt, and perhaps even a little regret.

A few weeks later, on the 29th of January, Catherine of Aragon’s body was laid to rest at Peterborough Abbey, which is now called Peterborough Cathedral. She was buried as the Dowager Princess of Wales, but her grave is now marked with the words “Catherine, Queen of England.”

Even five centuries after her death, Peterborough Cathedral continues to commemorate the life of Catherine of Aragon each year with dedicated services and an annual program of events.

Her final resting place is very rarely bare; throughout much of the year, it is adorned with flowers, candles, and even pomegranates left by tourists and Tudor history enthusiasts.

Catherine of Aragon’s greatest legacy was undoubtedly her daughter, the future Queen Mary I, who ruled England between July 1553 and November 1558.

Since her death, Catherine of Aragon’s story has been portrayed countless times in a variety of different productions. Just some of the actresses who have had the honor of bringing Catherine to life include Maria Doyle Kennedy (The Tudors, 2007), Ana Torrent (The Other Boleyn Girl, 2008), Joanne Whalley (Wolf Hall, 2015), and Charlotte Hope (The Spanish Princess, 2019).

Catherine of Aragon has even inspired works of modern literary fiction by some of the bestselling authors of our era. The Constant Princess by Philippa Gregory (2005) and The True Queen by Alison Weir (2016) are just two of the novels in which Catherine features as the heroine.

Catherine of Aragon: The Wife King Henry Loved Most? 

We can continue to speculate. We can continue to analyze records. We can continue to examine pieces of historical evidence and we can continue to weigh the solid facts against each other. The truth is that we will never really know whether or not Catherine of Aragon was King Henry’s favorite wife. How would it be possible for us to understand what was happening inside the mind of Britain’s most notorious and womanizing King?

However, we may draw a small conclusion of our own. It is quite possible that even if only in a small or particular way, each one of King Henry’s wives was his favorite.

Anne Boleyn might have been the wife with whom he was most infatuated and with whom he shared the most passionate of affairs. Jane Seymour might have been the wife he treasured most; the wife with whom he would happily have spent the rest of his life.

Anne of Cleeves might have been the most traditional choice of wife. Certainly, he would have considered her the best-behaved and most agreeable. Catherine Howard might have been exactly the sort of woman he required as he aged: a woman who brought happiness back into his life and made him feel youthful. Catherine Parr might have been the wife he trusted to care not only for him personally but also for his kingdom and his children.

When it comes to the nature of the relationship between King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, the opinions of historians could not be more varied. Many believe that, even at the beginning of their marriage, King Henry was motivated solely by the political advantage of a Spanish alliance.

Others claim that Catherine was the only wife he ever truly cared for. Some even theorize that, had they been able to produce a living and legitimate heir to the English throne, King Henry and Catherine might have enjoyed a lifelong romance.

Catherine of Aragon left historians in no doubt of her feelings for her husband, but was that love so ardently returned, even if only for a short time? The modern historian must settle upon their own individual answers to questions such as these. However, it cannot be denied that there is plenty of evidence that leads us to believe it might just be true. There really is a genuine possibility that Catherine was the wife King Henry loved most.

William of Ockham—philosopher, logician, theologian, Franciscan friar, and enemy of the church—has largely been accredited with the idea of Ockham’s razor. Often used within the philosophy of science, it has gained fame and notoriety since its conception in the Middle Ages. Ockham’s razor is a principle that prefers elegance, parsimony, and leaving behind ontological baggage. So, who was William of Ockham, and how sharp is his infamous razor?

Who Created Ockham’s Razor?

The idea is largely attributed to—and named after—William of Ockham (c. 1287–1347). He was one of the key figures of the High Middle Ages, along with other big scholastic names such as Thomas Aquinas or John Duns Scotus. However, unlike the others, Ockham was more of a rebel. He was charged with heresy by the Papal Court at Avignon and later excommunicated for fleeing Avignon.

Besides his political writings, which were controversial for that period, Ockham’s work in logic and metaphysics was equally unorthodox because he was a nominalist.

This means that he believed there are no metaphysical universals—such as Platonic Forms—and that ontology should be stripped down to its fundamental categories. His nominalism was underpinned by the principle we now call Ockham’s Razor.

The debate about universals was one of the key philosophical and theological debates that shaped the Middle Ages. The whole fuss was about the existence of universals – are they real and mind-independent entities with similar characteristics or mere words used for categorizing particular things? Philosophers and theologians inclined to the former view were called realists and followed in the footsteps of Plato, while nominalists opted for the latter view.

A Crash Course on Universals

So, why was everyone in Medieval philosophy in such a huff about the existence (or lack thereof) of universals?

The debate had important theological implications about the nature of God and the status of moral truths. If we wanted to claim that God has abstract qualities such as goodness and that our good deeds represent only instantiations of such universal goodness, then realists would wholeheartedly approve our claim.

Nonetheless, nominalists would be pretty disappointed with this (and us, for that matter). For them, abstract qualities can’t be independent of our minds. They are umbrella terms. Thus, our good deeds may be called “goodness,” this term may apply to God, but it is ultimately flatus vocis, or “breath of voice.” This could mean that universal moral truths can’t be derived from God and have no divine justification but are relative to different societies and periods.

In the Middle Ages, these were unacceptable and dangerous lines of argumentation. One could, God forbid, go further and say that the Church doesn’t gather all believers yearning for salvation in a single spiritual congregation close to God but is merely one religious community out of many. You don’t want to know how this could escalate back then.

The point is, however, that Ockham’s nominalism would be suspicious from the very start, even if he hadn’t developed it further in his political writings. For him, God was the only absolutely necessary entity, and he did not deny the existence of abstract qualities. So far, so good!

Unfortunately for Ockham, there was an additional inferential step: abstract qualities are not mind-independent entities but written and spoken terms. These terms can have, at best, a fictional existence; that is, they are products of our minds, singular qualities of thoughts. But there is no need to go on a metaphysical spree to reify and multiply these qualities.

But Did Ockham Actually Formulate Ockham’s Razor?

Ockham never denied the existence of universals, so the famous Razor was never used for denying but rather for suspending judgment about the entities. Nowadays, we can usually find the following formulation of Ockham’s Razor: “Don’t multiply entities beyond necessity.” Alas, Ockham never said this. In the words of the renowned philosopher Paul Vincent Spade:

“Although the sentiment is certainly Ockham’s, that particular formulation is nowhere to be found in his texts.” (2019, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Spade further points out that one particular sentence in Ockham’s Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard can be the only suitable candidate for the “real” Razor, which he translates as:

“For nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is self-evident (…) or known by experience or proved by the authority of Sacred Scripture.” (2019, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

In other words, Ockham stated three cases in which it makes sense to posit entities. In every other case, one is better off without speculative ontological categories. He did not label his principle as a “Razor” either.

Some three centuries later, Irish Franciscan friar and commentator of Ockham’s works, John Punch, introduced the phrase “Ockham’s Razor” to convey the idea of slicing through or cutting away bulky and unnecessary ontological categories and commitments. Thus, in due time, Ockham’s Razor became inseparable from the principle of ontological parsimony. This means that ontological simplicity is preferred when assessing competing hypotheses or theories. In this way, Ockham’s Razor favors simplicity as a theoretical virtue.

Can We Apply Ockham’s Razor in Scientific Inquiry?

Given that all scientific theories and hypotheses have some kind of ontological baggage, it seems quite natural to apply Ockham’s Razor when we are unsure of the direction of our scientific inquiry. In other words, it is intuitive to consider simpler hypotheses as more probable explanations of phenomena. Consider Galileo’s verdict on the rivalry between Ptolemaic and Copernican astronomy:

“Nature does not multiply things unnecessarily; that she makes use of the easiest and simplest means for producing her effects; that she does nothing in vain, and the like.” (1632/1962: 397)

Galileo, the godfather of the scientific method, in the Early Modern period wanted to tell us that Copernican astronomy uses fewer ontological commitments than Ptolemaic astronomy. Copernicus justified the heliocentric system because it was a more elegant and harmonious solution than Ptolemy’s geocentric system.

Why? Well, Ptolemy and his successor handled every counterevidence to their system by introducing more entities and commitments. For instance, Ptolemy introduced epicycles and deferents to explain the retrograde planetary movement, but his successors kept adding smaller epicycles to large ones for every failed prediction.

Throughout the Early Modern period and the Enlightenment, Ockham’s Razor became a symbol of the quest for a deeper, fundamental heuristic in experimental inquiry that would result in a clean-cut inventory of what there is. This is the period when excessive ontological baggage became tightly intertwined with speculative and non-rigorous science, thereby marking the first schism between metaphysics and science.

Ockham’s Razor’s First Shavings

Along these lines, Lavoisier, the pioneer of modern chemistry, wrote the following about the hypothetical existence of phlogiston:

“If all of chemistry can be explained in a satisfactory manner without the help of phlogiston, that is enough to render it infinitely likely that the principle does not exist […]. It is, after all, a principle of logic not to multiply entities unnecessarily.” (1862: 623–624)

Phlogiston was conceived as a substance without color, smell, taste, or mass released into the air during combustion and other chemical reactions. The removal of this substance supposedly resulted in the true nature of things. For instance, the true form of metal was believed to be revealed once it became calx and lost phlogiston through the heating.

However, Lavoisier was among the first chemists to refute the phlogiston theory, which could not have been done without invoking the famous Razor. Lavoisier’s experiments showed that combustion involved the combination of a substance with oxygen from the air, not releasing a mysterious substance. This led to the development of modern chemical oxidation theory and the elimination of unnecessary ontological entities like phlogiston.

The Relevance of Ockham’s Razor in Contemporary Philosophy of Science

Despite its historical importance, Ockham’s Razor is not without its critics nowadays. Some argue that its preference for simplicity might lead to the oversight of complex yet crucial aspects of phenomena, thereby ridding us of scientific truth.

To put it mildly, we may be biased toward simpler theories and hypotheses due to our “limitations” as humans. These limitations deter us from finding the truth that must be out there (as Scully and Mulder tried to convince us in The X-Files).

Nevertheless, the plea for fewer ontological entities and commitments has some merit. The burgeoning subfield of philosophy of science—philosophy of artificial intelligence (AI)—may profit from emphasizing Ockham’s Razor.

Consider the daily problem that AI engineers face, namely overfitting models to data. This happens when models have been trained too well on their training data to the point where they capture the underlying patterns and the noise within the training dataset. When tested against novel data, models then perform poorly.

Ockham’s Razor tells us that we should prefer simpler models over complex ones to trace the relationship between the dataset and parameters within models. This improves the efficiency and interpretability of AI systems and aligns with the broader scientific quest for elegance and simplicity in understanding complex phenomena. Therefore, Ockham’s Razor can be relevant to the methodological issues we struggle with today.

References

Galileo, G. (1632/1962). Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (trans. S. Drake). Berkeley.

Lavoisier, A. (1862). Réflexions sur le Phlogistique. In Oeuvres (Volume 2). Paris.

Spade, P. V. & Panaccio, C. (2019). William of Ockham. In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/ockham/

The philosophical thought of determinism posits that every event or action is determined by the causes of previous events and natural laws. It, of course, looks like a narrow place to stand at first sight, but determinism does present a few strengths that make it an interesting and thought-provoking position to hold. Explorations into the strengths of determinism raise questions like those of cause and effect, free will, and, indeed, even the nature of reality. So, what are the strengths of determinism?

The Concept of Determinism and Its Origins

The concept of determinism is a principle in philosophy that explains that events and, ultimately, everything, particularly human actions, are determined by preceding occasions. That concept negates the traditional view of free will and says that our choices and behavior are pre-decided by a string of causality, which, from our point of view, is beyond our purview.

Determinism traces its roots back to ancient Greek philosophy, especially the ideas of philosophers such as Leucippus and Democritus, who developed a sort of determinism founded on the principle of causality. Yet, it was only in the early modern period that this position became salient because of thinkers like Baruch Spinoza or Pierre-Simon Laplace. It was really brought more fully into a modern development and became popular.

In the 19th century, prominent thinkers such as Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud were among its supporters. According to Marx, materialist conceptions of history relate societal development through determinist outcomes based on economic drivers, while psychoanalytically, human behavior is determined by unconscious impulses working outside one’s control.

Generally, scientific developments in physics have also contributed to the wide acceptance of determinism. With Newtonian mechanics, much later, came a concern in quantum physics: What if there is no absolute randomness or probabilistics, but everything goes by deterministic laws on another level?

In general, consideration was given to the perspective of determinism in history to the order of centuries, with inputs from various philosophical orderings and scientific discoveries. That is a long and rather rich history, reflecting a persistent interest in understanding the causal mechanisms of reality and human existence.

Predictability and Scientific Explanation of Determinism

Determinism has several notable strengths. One of the main ones is that it provides a framework for understanding why the universe is predictable and orderly. In the natural sciences—such as physics or biology—determinism helps to account for things by way of cause and effect.

This predictability is crucial for scientific investigation: it allows researchers to make hypotheses, test them in experiments, and then develop theories explaining how something works.

For instance, in physics, Newton’s laws of motion can be used to predict exactly where an object will go because they are based on deterministic principles. Genetics works in much the same way as biology, with deterministic rules governing how traits are passed from parents to offspring generation after generation.

In philosophy, determinism is important for examining ethical considerations regarding behavior and decision-making. If factors beyond our control determine our actions, how can we hold people morally responsible for their choices?

Philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes and David Hume have grappled with this question within the deterministic framework. They suggest that by understanding the factors that determine human behavior, we can have more nuanced discussions about accountability, rehabilitation, and social policy.

Determinism also has strengths regarding predictability—being able to say what will happen next—and providing an explanation in scientific terms.

Recognizing the patterns of determinism at work, both in how natural things behave and how humans behave differently from them, gives us a deeper understanding of not just that things do happen but why they do so, too.

Consistency With Natural Laws

Another advantage of determinism is that it agrees with the observation that the universe functions according to regular natural laws. This regularity suggests that events do not happen by chance but have specific causes. By understanding these causes, determinists argue that we can better understand the natural world and its intricate workings.

Philosophers such as Spinoza and Laplace have stressed the importance of deterministic principles in explaining why nature follows patterns.

Laplace’s famous claim that if an intelligent entity were capable of knowing all the forces acting upon particles in the universe, then it could predict their future positions illustrates this deterministic way of thinking, too. Our grasp of reality benefits from this sense of structure and certainty provided by regularities in natural laws.

In addition, determinism is important in fields such as quantum mechanics and cosmology for developing scientific theories. The idea that there are causes behind actions or events is fundamental to many scientific models that aim to explain things on both small and large scales.

Einstein’s theory of general relativity, for example, incorporates determinism into how we understand gravity and the curvature of space-time.

Realizing that natural laws always play out in exactly the same way can help us see patterns and regularities in how physical processes happen. This deterministic view also aligns with other well-established scientific principles, strengthening our case for seeing things this way if we want a coherent framework for explaining how events are connected throughout the universe.

Ethical Implications and Compassion

Ethically speaking, determinism may encourage greater compassion for human behavior. If actions are seen as coming from prior causes rather than pure free will choices, people might be more inclined to understand and sympathize with why others act the way they do.

This perspective could also affect how society thinks about rehabilitation, mental health, and social justice, leading to policies that address the underlying causes of behavior.

In criminal justice, for example, a deterministic view challenges traditional ideas of blame and punishment. Philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus have considered how recognizing determinism might shift attention toward societal factors contributing to criminal acts rather than simply blaming individuals who commit them.

In addition, therapists who see things through a deterministic lens have psychological benefits: They can assist clients in unpacking how past traumas or difficult upbringings still affect their mental health today. Therapists who grasp the deterministic side of human behavior can help foster healing and growth by being empathetic and supportive.

At its core, the ethics of determinism underscore how people are shaped by their surroundings and biology. When looking at behavior, recognizing this leads to a more compassionate approach to social ills—one that seeks to understand and provide for people dealing with things beyond their control.

Clarification of Moral Responsibility

Determinism contributes to the conversation about moral responsibility by shedding light on how accountability works in a deterministic world. While determinism challenges the traditional idea of free will by suggesting that human actions are always caused by something else, it also opens up new ways of thinking about complex ethics.

One such way is through compatibilism, a philosophy that tries to find common ground between free will and determinism. According to compatibilists, freedom and determinism can live together if we understand freedom as being able to do what you want based on who you are—even if outside things have shaped those desires.

Imagine someone committing a crime to see how this might work out in real life. On determinism’s account, everything they did was caused by factors like their genes, how they were raised, or what society expects from them—stuff they don’t pick themselves.

But if, within this causal framework of compatibilism, they were acting rationally based on their own desires and intentions (which feels true for lots), then we can still hold them responsible for it from a moral standpoint, too.

Thinkers such as John Stuart Mill and David Hume have delved into this topic, stressing that morality must consider not only deterministic factors but also personal responsibility.

By grappling with determinism in this fashion, we can better comprehend how complicated questions of accountability and ethics are bound up with the way humans behave and make decisions.

Philosophical Inquiry and Self-Understanding

Determinism fosters profound philosophical exploration into the essence of human autonomy, freedom, and existence itself. When we consider to what extent factors beyond our control influence our choices, we also reflect upon ethics, personal identity—and even whether we occupy a special place within the cosmos. This self-examination can help us better understand ourselves and how we relate to others.

Existentialist philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre provide an example of this kind of thinking. They grappled with determinism’s implications for authenticity and individual responsibility. If external forces help shape our actions, how can we still say they’re ours alone—and how can we forge ahead believing our lives have meaning?

Besides, exploring determinism has psychological benefits. It helps people develop self-awareness and become more empathetic toward others. When one understands that behaviors often result from complex chains of causes and effects, it becomes easier to show compassion—for oneself and others who may have been influenced by similar deterministic factors.

In moral philosophy, too, there’s been discussion about how principles of duty or moral obligation could make sense if determinism were true. By grappling with these philosophical questions raised by determinism’s challenge to free will, individuals can better understand their own values, beliefs, and motivations.

In general, philosophically discussing determinism can help us better understand ourselves and gain valuable insights into how complicated human beings really are!

So, What Are the Strengths of Determinism?

The theory of determinism is a powerful idea that challenges whether we have free will and suggests everything is part of an incredibly complex web of cause and effect—even down to the smallest atomic particle. It isn’t just an abstract notion for armchair philosophers. It has practical uses, too, such as helping scientists predict things with astonishing accuracy.

Determinism says each action or event isn’t random but rather follows on from something else—nature’s laws are laid out in advance every single time. Think of the universe like a huge orchestra: with determinism, every note played by every instrument comes from sheet music that’s already been composed.

Furthermore, determinism challenges us to reconsider our beliefs about moral responsibility, encouraging greater understanding and compassion for human actions. It suggests that by examining the causes behind behavior, we can create fairer and more humane social policies.

In ethics and moral philosophy, determinism prompts us to rethink ideas of blame, creating a complicated picture in which both free will and determinism have a place.

Determinism also prompts us to think: What does it mean for human beings if everything is caused by something else? Do we really have autonomy or any say over how our lives turn out? Who are we, anyway?

So rather than leading to apathy (a whatever-will-be-will-be attitude), determinism leads towards enlightenment: using what we’ve learned from the past to help make sense of an unclear future.

Popular imagination associates the biblical “Satan” with the diabolical being also called “the Devil” in the New Testament. The creature is thoroughly evil—a tempter and destroyer of all that is good and divine. This view of Satan, however, is absent from the Hebrew Bible (the part of the Bible that Christians call the “Old Testament”). Instead, Satan—or, more properly, “a” or “the Satan”—is presented as a character who works at God’s bidding as part of God’s heavenly council. 

Can the Word “Satan” Refer to Human, or Superhuman, Agents?

“Satan” is not a proper name in the Hebrew Bible. Instead, it is a descriptor derived from the Hebrew root meaning “adversary” or “opponent.” While it does not come out in English translations, the word is used often both in its noun and verb forms in the Hebrew Bible to refer to both human and superhuman or angelic actors. The word does not assume anything about the innate goodness or evil character of its referent. An “adversary” (Satan) could be right or wrong, depending on one’s perspective. 

For example, in the biblical book of First Samuel the Philistines express worry that David will turn against them and become their “Satan” if they allow him to accompany them in battle against his fellow Hebrews. In a strange story in the biblical book of Numbers, God sends an angel to dissuade a prophet named Balaam from cursing the Israelites. The story describes the angel as a “Satan” enlisted in God’s service. 

Was Satan a Member of God’s Heavenly Council?

The biblical book of Job features a particular character who is called simply “The Satan.” This is the most developed instance in the Hebrew Bible of an otherworldly being who seems to bear this as a permanent title. In the story, The Satan is a member of what is often referred to by interpreters as God’s “council,” which the text calls in this case “the sons of God.” 

In the opening chapter, God asks The Satan for his assessment of Job’s piety. The Satan claims that it is suspect. Since Job enjoys great wealth and comfort, he argues, Job’s devotion to God would fade if he were made poor and miserable. God then sends The Satan to test Job. From Job’s own point of view, his afflictions come from God’s hand. He does not venture to blame anyone else in the rest of the book.

Does Their Satan Work for God?

Scholars have struggled to find an appropriate analogy to explain Satan’s role in God’s council. The best attempts include the role of a prosecutor, the police, or an executioner. Though these may be inadequate analogies, it is at least clear that Satan is not God’s archenemy in the Hebrew Bible.

The Satan is mentioned briefly in the Bible in First Chronicles chapter 21 where he incites King David to take a census of the Israelite population. However, in the parallel to this story in Second Samuel, which the writer of Chronicles used as a source, God is the one who incites David to this action. These passages raise various questions. However, if The Satan is understood as God’s servant, at least one of them is answered. 

Elsewhere, God also causes human “satans,” who are foreign powers, to arise in opposition to King Solomon of Israel. While God does not approve of their every activity, these “satans” act at God’s behest.  

Can God Favor Mercy Over Satan’s Intentions?

The Satan appears in an apocalyptic vision in the third chapter of the biblical book of Zechariah. In this case, God and God’s special messenger, called the “Angel of the Lord,” rebuke The Satan for standing ready to accuse Israel’s high priest Joshua. 

While God is not pleased with The Satan’s intent in this passage, the interaction does not rise to the level of a cosmic “good-versus-evil” conflict. Rather, it is presented as God’s desiring to show mercy, which entails rejecting The Satan’s stringent, judgmental posture toward Joshua’s symbolically disheveled state as the representative of the Israelite nation. Having silenced The Satan, God’s messenger angel commands that Joshua’s filthy garments be removed and replaced with ritually pure vestments worthy of a Temple priest. 

Is the Snake in the Garden of Eden Not Satan?

Genesis, the first book in the Hebrew Bible, tells the story of a snake that persuaded the first man and woman to eat fruit from a tree that God had forbidden them to eat. Famously, this snake became associated with Satan, either as a host or directly. However, the Hebrew Bible nowhere associates this creature with a spiritual entity. It is simply a crafty, talking snake. 

The New Testament likewise never explicitly makes the connection between the talking snake in Genesis and The Satan. However, the New Testament book of Revelation refers to The Satan as a deceiver and uses reptilian imagery to portray him. Elsewhere, the snake from Genesis is described as a deceiver. Over time, these strands were woven together and addended to a storyline about Satan’s background that has enjoyed impressive staying power in Christianity and beyond.  

Does Satan Have a Backstory in the Hebrew Bible? 

While two passages from the Hebrew Bible—Ezekiel 28 and Isaiah 14—are often cited as telling the story of Satan’s origin as an angel and his subsequent fall from heaven, both of these passages are actually decrying the arrogance and predicting the demise of human kings contemporary to the authors. While the authors use poetic, imaginative, apocalyptic language, the context does not suggest that The Satan’s backstory is in view. In fact, the kings are specifically identified in each case. Later, these texts were pieced together with passages from the New Testament and extra-biblical material to develop an elaborate origin tale for Satan that evolved in tandem with his personality as God’s supremely evil nemesis.

When New York comes to mind, most people picture the hustle and bustle of New York City. But there’s so much more to the Empire State than its iconic skyline. From the serene Finger Lakes to the rolling Catskills and the awe-inspiring Adirondack Mountains, upstate New York offers countless spots for exploration and adventure.

Nestled in the northeastern corner of the state, the Adirondacks span over six million acres of natural beauty, boasting pristine lakes, towering peaks, and lush forests. But it’s not all about outdoor escapades. This region is also home to charming small towns with rich histories and timeless landmarks. For history enthusiasts eager to explore the past while surrounded by stunning landscapes, here are ten historic small towns in the Adirondacks that are simply unforgettable.

1. Lake Placid

Established in the early 19th century, Lake Placid evolved from an iron ore mining hub into a premier resort destination. The village gained prominence by hosting the Winter Olympics twice, in 1932 and 1980, with the latter featuring the iconic “Miracle on Ice” hockey game.

When visiting this iconic town in New York’s Adirondack Mountains, you’ll be able to explore the Lake Placid Olympic Museum, which showcases artifacts from both Olympic Games, including the skates used by Jack Shea in 1932 and memorabilia from the 1980 hockey team.

Another significant site is the John Brown Farm State Historic Site, the final resting place of the famed abolitionist.

Lake Placid also offers year-round recreational activities, from hiking and skiing to boating on its pristine lakes. Boutique shops, restaurants, and galleries line Main Street, providing a delightful experience for visitors.

2. Saranac Lake

This charming historic village was established in 1819. It gained prominence in the late 19th century as a pioneering center for tuberculosis treatment, thanks to Dr. Edward Livingston Trudeau’s establishment of the first successful U.S. sanatorium.

Start by visiting the Saranac Laboratory Museum, the nation’s first laboratory dedicated to tuberculosis research. It will provide you with insights into the village’s medical heritage.

The Robert Louis Stevenson Cottage and Museum preserves the residence where the famed author spent a winter in 1887.

Saranac Lake’s vibrant arts scene is showcased at venues like Pendragon Theatre, established in 1980, which continues to enrich the community with diverse performances. The village’s historic downtown features unique shops, galleries, and eateries, reflecting its cultural vitality.

Surrounded by the Saranac Chain of Lakes, the area offers abundant recreational activities, including boating, fishing, and hiking. The annual Saranac Lake Winter Carnival, initiated in 1887, stands as the oldest winter carnival in the eastern U.S., celebrating the season with parades, performances, and the iconic Ice Palace.

3. Ticonderoga

Ticonderoga, located in New York’s Adirondack region, is a town steeped in pivotal American history. Its name derives from the Mohawk term tekontaró:ken, meaning “it is at the junction of two waterways,” aptly describing its position between Lake George and Lake Champlain.

The town’s most renowned landmark, Fort Ticonderoga, originally known as Fort Carillon, was constructed by the French between 1755 and 1757 during the French and Indian War. This star-shaped fortification became a strategic focal point in subsequent conflicts. On May 10, 1775, during the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold led a daring raid and captured the fort from the British during this unexpected assault.

This victory provided the Continental Army with much-needed artillery, which was later transported by Colonel Henry Knox to aid in the Siege of Boston.

Visitors to Ticonderoga can immerse themselves in this rich history by touring Fort Ticonderoga, which has been meticulously restored and now operates as a museum. The fort offers interactive exhibits, reenactments, and stunning views of the surrounding lakes. Nearby, Mount Defiance provides panoramic vistas and historical insights into its role during the 1777 British campaign.

4. Keene Valley

You will find Keene Valley in New York’s Adirondack High Peaks. It’s a town that you’ll love visiting, whether you’re a nature enthusiast or a history buff. Established in the late 18th century, Keene Valley’s early settlers braved rugged terrains to lay its foundations.

The area is renowned for its stunning landscapes, offering access to numerous hiking trails, including routes to Mount Marcy, New York’s highest peak. Notable natural attractions include Roaring Brook Falls and the scenic vistas from Indian Head.

Keene Valley’s rich history is preserved through local initiatives like the Keene Valley Library’s Adirondack Community project, which collects and shares stories from residents, that allow you to learn about the town’s cultural heritage.

Also, don’t forget about the local arts scene, with galleries and shops featuring works inspired by the surrounding natural beauty.

5. Elizabethtown

Elizabethtown, affectionately known as “Pleasant Valley,” is a historic town that was established in 1798. It became the seat of Essex County, reflecting its early significance in the region.
The town’s rich heritage is showcased at the Adirondack History Museum, which houses over 6,000 artifacts and documents spanning two centuries of local life. You can explore here exhibits on regional history, a preserved Adirondack fire tower, and a colonial garden.

Nature enthusiasts will appreciate Elizabethtown’s scenic beauty, with the Boquet River flowing through and Hurricane Mountain providing a picturesque backdrop. The area offers opportunities for canoeing, kayaking, and fishing, particularly for trout. Nearby, Split Rock Falls features a series of waterfalls and deep pools, making it a popular spot for visitors.

6. Schroon Lake

Schroon Lake has been a cherished destination since the early 19th century. The town’s name is believed to derive from a Native American term for “large lake,” reflecting its expansive waters.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Schroon Lake flourished as a resort town, attracting visitors to its grand hotels and children’s camps. Notably, the Seagle Music Colony, founded in 1915, stands as the oldest summer vocal training program in the U.S., contributing significantly to the area’s cultural heritage.

Today, you can consider visiting the Schroon-North Hudson Historical Society which preserves artifacts and stories from the region’s past, allowing you to learn about its development.

You can also enjoy various activities such as boating, fishing, and hiking, with the town beach serving as a popular spot for relaxation.

The historic Strand Theater, dating back to the 1920s, continues to entertain with films and live performances, maintaining its role as a cultural hub.

7. Old Forge

Old Forge has evolved from a 19th-century lumbering hub into a premier destination for outdoor enthusiasts and families. The town’s rich history is preserved at the Goodsell Museum, housed in a Victorian-era home built in 1899, offering exhibits that chronicle the region’s development.

A standout attraction is the Enchanted Forest Water Safari, New York’s largest water theme park, featuring over 50 rides and attractions suitable for all ages. Adjacent to the park, Calypso’s Cove offers additional family fun with go-karts, mini-golf, and an arcade.

For those seeking natural beauty, the Fulton Chain of Lakes provides opportunities for boating and scenic cruises, allowing visitors to immerse themselves in the serene Adirondack environment. Nearby, McCauley Mountain offers hiking trails and panoramic views, making it a year-round destination for outdoor activities.

8. Speculator

Speculator, a picturesque village in New York’s Adirondack Mountains, was incorporated in 1925 and is named after the nearby Speculator Mountain. The village is the sole incorporated community within Hamilton County and serves as the economic center of the Town of Lake Pleasant.

In the late 1920s, Speculator gained prominence when heavyweight boxing champion Gene Tunney trained there, drawing spectators and contributing to local landmarks like Gene Tunney Park.

Today, Speculator offers a variety of recreational activities. Oak Mountain Ski Center provides skiing and snowboarding opportunities during winter months. The village’s location on the shores of Lake Pleasant allows for boating, fishing, and swimming in warmer seasons. Hiking enthusiasts can explore trails such as the Northville-Lake Placid Trail, which passes through the area.

The Historical Society of Lake Pleasant & Speculator manages a museum featuring artifacts and displays that highlight the area’s rich history.

9. North Creek

This hamlet in the Adirondack Mountains gained prominence in the 19th century as a hub for the Adirondack Railroad, facilitating regional development. A pivotal moment occurred on September 14, 1901, when Vice President Theodore Roosevelt, while visiting the area, learned at the North Creek Depot of President McKinley’s death, leading to his succession to the presidency.

Today, the North Creek Depot Museum commemorates this event and showcases the area’s railroading heritage. The museum offers exhibits on the history of the Adirondack Railroad and its impact on the region.

North Creek is also known for the historic North Creek Ski Bowl, which opened in 1934 as a pioneering ski area in the United States. The Ski Bowl has since expanded and become a key part of Gore Mountain’s ski offerings, attracting winter sports enthusiasts from around the country.

If you love the outdoors, there are plenty of activities to enjoy, such as whitewater rafting on the Hudson River, hiking nearby trails, and exploring the scenic beauty of the Adirondacks.

10. Indian Lake

Indian Lake, established in 1858, is known as the “Moose Capital of the Northeast.” The town’s heritage is preserved at the Indian Lake Museum, which showcases artifacts and exhibits detailing the area’s past, including its Indigenous roots and early settler experiences.

Outdoor enthusiasts can explore the Snowy Mountain Fire Observation Station, a historic fire tower offering panoramic views of the surrounding wilderness. Additionally, the town is renowned for whitewater rafting on the Hudson River, providing thrilling experiences for adventurers.

When reconstruction began at Notre Dame following the 2019 fire, a team of archaeologists was called in to dig for artifacts at the cathedral’s crossing. They were surprised to discover 1,035 fragments of various artworks buried beneath the stone floor. Among the most significant of these are the remains of a 13th-century rood screen that once shrouded Notre Dame’s choir and sanctuary from public view.

Notre Dame Excavations “Much Richer Than Expected”

According to French law, any construction project that disturbs soil where ancient artifacts may be found requires a survey by government archaeologists. The archaeological team, which came from the National Institute for Preventative Archaeological Research, did not expect to find much at Notre Dame. They were given just five weeks to dig no deeper than 16 inches at the cathedral’s crossing, where the transept meets the nave and choir.

“The remains turned out to be much richer than expected,” lead archaeologist Christophe Besnier told National Geographic. “It’s very impressive.” The team was surprised to find 1,035 artwork fragments buried right beneath the stone floor. Some of these are pieces of life-size limestone sculptures that once stood at the center of Notre Dame. French art critic Didier Ryker called these finds, which date back to the 13th century, “some of the most exceptional works of sculpture from any period in the world.”

Archaeologists Excavate “Exceptional” Sculptures and Historic Burials

Besnier’s archaeological team was granted permission to dig deeper so the artifacts could be extracted, extending the dig to over two months. In addition to the 13th-century sculpture fragments, they found two lead coffins, one of which likely belongs to the French Renaissance poet Joachim du Bellay. A handful of other more ordinary burials were also uncovered.

Most notably, archaeologists extracted several 13th-century sculpted heads and torsos, including a depiction of a lifeless Jesus Christ. According to Besnier, this particular sculpture “is really exceptional in its finesse, its attention to detail. The rendering of the eyelids, the ears, the nose—it’s incredible.” Archaeologists also determined that these sculptures were originally painted in bright colors, as remnants of red pigment were found on some of the fragments.

13th-century Rood Screen Among Most Significant Finds

Some of the sculpture fragments unearthed at Notre Dame belonged to a 13th-century rood screen—a masterwork of painted Gothic sculpture that once stood 13 feet high just beyond the cathedral’s entrance. The life-size sculptures on the rood screen told the story of Christianity, including scenes from the passion of Christ. A large crucifix would have topped the screen, as “rood” is an old Saxon word for “cross.”

Centuries ago, priests at Notre Dame used the rood screen to seclude themselves in the choir during their daily prayer services. The screen also served as a platform for the priests to read scripture from a pulpit to visiting Parisians in the nave. It stood for five centuries until changes in liturgical practice and aesthetic taste forced its removal in the early 18th century. Still considered too sacred to leave Notre Dame, the rood screen was destroyed, and its pieces were buried beneath the cathedral.

Even before the end of the Second World War, it became clear that the potential for a new global war was rising. The forces of the West were in an ideological deadlock with the rising power of the Soviet Union.

Immediately, allied planners began to assemble a military alliance that would evolve into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Seeing this as an existential threat, the Soviet Union united the countries under its own sphere of influence in Eastern Europe into a defensive alliance known as the Warsaw Pact.

These two organizations had enough military power to destroy the planet many times over, and the decades that followed would be characterized by very uneasy neighbors in Europe living in fearful times.

The Situation in Europe After World War II

The end of World War II left Europe in tatters. From the West, the United States, Great Britain, Canada, France, and others had all converged on Germany, while from the East, the Soviet Union rolled like a juggernaut over Berlin, liberating Eastern Europe in the process.

By the end of the war, much of Eastern Europe, including the eastern part of Germany, was under Soviet occupation. Despite the loss of 27 million people, the Soviet Union emerged from the war as a superpower with the strength to rival or even surpass the United States in many areas.

Many saw the Soviet Union as a threat to Western Europe, not least Winston Churchill, who famously declared, “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an ‘iron curtain’ has descended across the continent.” On either side, the great powers would plant and solidify their political ideologies.

In the West, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation was created in 1949. Its aim was to be a defensive alliance centered around the ideology of promoting solidarity against any aggression, but in particular, communist aggression.

The original members of this alliance were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States. Greece and Turkey joined the alliance in 1952, while West Germany became a member in May 1955, the same month the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance was established. This treaty became known as the Warsaw Pact.

The Founding of the Warsaw Pact

The driving forces behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact were the ideologies of communism and collective defense against any Western attempts to subvert this ideology. Before this, however, were the concerns of the Czechoslovak leadership, which feared a resurgent Germany and wished to unite with Poland and East Germany in a military alliance.

Meanwhile, the Soviet Union, fearing the same, sent a request to join NATO. This was rejected. The Soviet Union had suggested plans for a re-unified Germany but stipulated that it was to be neutral. NATO members refused this idea, believing a neutral state would be subjected to Soviet influence.

Instead, West Germany was accepted into NATO and armed as part of the alliance. As a direct response, the Warsaw Pact was formed on May 14, 1955. One of the first motions passed was the rearming of East Germany as a communist state under the leadership of Walter Ulbricht.

The founding members were The People’s Socialist Republic of Albania, The People’s Republic of Bulgaria, The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, The German Democratic Republic, The Hungarian People’s Republic, The Polish People’s Republic, The Socialist Republic of Romania, and the Soviet Union.

With the Kremlin firmly in control, the nature of these countries’ governments was that they were largely controlled by the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union was still seeking reparations from some of these countries, specifically the ones that had been members of the Axis and had taken part in the invasion of the Soviet Union during the Second World War.

Major Incidents of Dissent: Hungary in 1956 & Czechoslovakia in 1968

There are many examples where Soviet control had to be exerted through military means, but two main incidents stand out: the 1956 invasion of Hungary and the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia.

Throughout the decades, it was necessary for the Soviet Union to occasionally exert military power in order to keep control of its satellite states. The first incident in which military force was used in such a way was in Hungary in 1956.

Starting as student protests on October 23, the Stalinist government of Mátyás Rákosi was pressured to veer away from Soviet control. When a new government was installed under the leadership of Imre Nagy, alarm bells rang loudly in Moscow. Nagy promised to withdraw Hungary from the Warsaw Pact and to hold free and fair elections.

On November 4, Soviet troops began reasserting their control. By November 10, the revolution was over, and a new prime minister, János Kádár, was installed as Hungary’s leader.

In 1968, Czechoslovakia would bear the brunt of Soviet military action. Problems started with a command economy not tailored to the unique situation in Czechoslovakia, which was already at a much higher level of industrialization than the model was designed for. As a result, the economy suffered, as did the standard of living. The latter would be the spark that generated student protests.

Students demanded greater freedoms and a change in economic policies, which caused severe unrest and exposed weaknesses in the country’s leader, Antonín Novotný. A transition of power led to the election of Alexander Dubček, who formed a government more open to liberal reform.

Many human rights groups and pro-liberal movements began actively influencing the public in a move that alarmed the Soviet leadership as well as Dubček. The Soviets and Warsaw Pact members tried to intervene to find a diplomatic solution. Dubček, confident that he could solve the issues without the Warsaw Pact’s help, continued attending to the problem.

Fearful of the situation spiraling out of control, On August 20, 1968, Soviet and Warsaw Pact forces invaded Czechoslovakia to reaffirm complete control over the country. What was termed the “Prague Spring” was crushed. Its leaders were arrested, and a new government was installed, which was not open to any liberal reforms.

Comparison With NATO

Like NATO, the Warsaw Pact was an alliance that stipulated that if one member were attacked, the others would come to its aid.

In NATO, the United States was the foundation of a powerful alliance able to resist any expansionist designs of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union, in turn, served as the vital foundation of the Warsaw Pact. However, the dynamics between the relationships of member states in the Warsaw Pact were different from those in NATO.

Warsaw Pact members had far less ability to defy the will of the Kremlin, and those that did were subject to dangerous consequences such as military action. The member states were independent inasmuch as they were allowed self-determination as long as it fell within the prescribed communist parameters. However, if a country strayed too much from the ideological path or violated Communist Party functions, the Kremlin would get involved.

This led to distrust and opened the doors to a high potential for animosity that was not a hallmark of relationships between NATO members. In practice, the Warsaw Pact exhibited a hierarchy in which the Eastern European satellite states were very much under the control of the Soviet Union.

This grip, however, was not completely solid. Albania left the Warsaw Pact due to differences in ideology in the 1960s. Unlike other Warsaw Pact countries, the Albanian communist leadership had not come to power by the Soviet hand but rather, like Yugoslavia, had chosen communism on its own terms. As such, there was a certain resentment when Soviet authorities expected Albania to fall in line.

Albania also had the luxury of not being bordered by any of the other Warsaw Pact nations, thereby making any military intervention from the Warsaw Pact almost impossible, as it would have to attain permission from other countries (mostly Yugoslavia) to use land and airspace. Albania also had the support of China, which made the Soviets wary in their attempts to exert too much control over it.

Whereas both the Warsaw Pact and NATO provided a framework for a unified military command, the Warsaw Pact also operated as a way for the Soviet Union to exhibit more power at an international level, whether military or diplomatic.

It is difficult to determine which organization was more powerful in terms of military power. Such arguments are academic and rely on many factors, such as quality, command and control, industrial capabilities, and a plethora of others. In terms of pure numbers, it is also difficult to assess the sizes of the forces involved, as both the Warsaw Pact and NATO released widely differing statistics of each other’s armed forces.

What can be said for certain is that both sides had standing forces numbering in the millions of soldiers, and the Warsaw Pact had significantly more tanks and artillery. NATO, on the other hand, had a much larger navy.

Collapse of the Warsaw Pact

By the end of the 1980s, difficult economic issues were plaguing the Soviet Union. Mikhail Gorbachev initiated reforms and eventually ended the Soviet Union.

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, as well as the reunification of Germany, the Warsaw Pact had little reason to exist. These countries left the pact and reformed their governments, leading to a new era of democracy in Eastern Europe.

Legacy of the Warsaw Pact

The legacy of the Warsaw Pact is still clearly visible today. It created a political divide between Western and Eastern Europe that has shaped current politics in the region. While countries in Western Europe have been more accepting of left-leaning politics, many Eastern European countries have become extremely conservative or libertarian in their quest to distance themselves from communism.

This is particularly true among countries that are now members of NATO and perceive Russia as a threat. In addition to current political events, there is also a history of conflict and repression between Russia and certain states in Eastern Europe. Of note is Poland, which has been a historical opponent of Russia for many centuries. Today, Poland is one of the most vocal supporters of NATO and one of Russia’s most zealous critics.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact dissolved, and NATO’s primary reason for existence disappeared, too. Despite this, NATO continued to expand, and all the former Warsaw Pact countries became new members. In addition, the Baltic States, which were part of the former Soviet Union, also became NATO members. The ramifications of this are a subject of fierce criticism from Russia, which views the expansion as an existential threat to its immediate borders.

As such, the expansion of NATO has been blamed for increased militarization in Europe and has led to a new conflict similar to the Cold War.

The Warsaw Pact’s alliance of countries extended the Soviet Union’s power and kept NATO in check on the European continent. These countries played a vital role in bolstering the Communist Bloc’s size and offset their opponents’ strategic capabilities.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, there seemed little reason for the Warsaw Pact to exist, and it, too, was dissolved.

After Heracles defeated the Nemean Lion, King Eurystheus gave him a new task — to kill the Lernaean Hydra. The Hydra was an immortal venomous serpent with multiple heads raised by Hera to kill Heracles. This was the second of Heracles’s twelve labors to atone for his crime of killing his family. Slaying the Hydra, guarded by a troublesome giant crab, seemed impossible. However, Heracles did not have to face it alone. Keep reading to find out who came to help him and how they defeated the formidable Lernaean Hydra.

A Hero’s Welcome

Upon Heracles’ return to Tiryns, King Eurystheus was left speechless. He had not anticipated his cousin’s survival after facing the indestructible Nemean Lion. Heracles’s appearance shook him. He was dressed like a wild barbarian, sporting a lion pelt, carrying a club, and dragging the lion’s dead body behind him. Heracles’ face peering out of the lion’s maw filled the King with terror. The King was so scared by the sight of Heracles and the remains of the lion that he forbade him from ever entering the city again after completing his labors.

In the future, Heracles would wait at the city gates and communicate with the King through a herald. When Eurystheus decided to visit Heracles, he brought along a large bronze jar. Eurystheus claimed that the jar was meant to contain any trophies he ordered Heracles to bring him. However, the jar would have other uses for the king, which would become apparent in later labors.

Upon regaining his composure, Eurystheus cautioned Heracles that each subsequent task would be more dangerous and challenging than the previous ones. Perhaps the King took the opportunity to suggest that he was actually not at all surprised that Heracles had defeated the Nemean lion. After all, it was only the first and, therefore, the most rudimentary task that the King, through the will of Hera, could think of.

The Immortal Hydra

The King commanded Heracles to slay a vicious Lernaean Hydra that was terrorizing his subjects and contaminating the fresh drinking water of the area. The Hydra had made its home in a deep cave near the legendary spring of Amymone, named after one of the two surviving Daniads. After Poseidon rescued Amymone from a Chthonic satyr and fell in love with her, he revealed the spring to her.

The spring was the source of Lake Lerna, a swampy marshland in the eastern part of Eurystheus’s Kingdom. Lake Lerna was a well-known entrance to the underworld and a holy site sacred to Demeter, where locals would prey for fertile soil and clean water. The Hydra did not make its lair near Lake Lerna by accident. Hera intentionally placed and nurtured the Hydra there with the sole objective of killing Heracles.

The Hydra was a terrifying creature born from the union of two serpentine monsters: the deadly Typhon and the mother of monsters, Echidna. They also gave birth to many other infamous monsters in Greek myths. The Hydra had multiple snakeheads that protruded from a massive water snake’s body.

This monster’s exact number of heads varies across different ancient sources, with some identifying three and others over 50. However, most ancient writers and artists attribute six to nine heads to the unearthly draconic serpent. Whether each head possessed an independent mind or the Hydrea shared a collective consciousness is uncertain. However, not all the heads were identical. One of the Hydra’s heads was the original head, which was immortal and undying.

The massive physique and multiple heads of the immortal serpent were by no means its deadliest attributes. Unfortunately for Heracles, the Hydra’s venom was the most lethal poison known to the world. The creature could shoot its venom out of its mouth in a powerful spray, hitting targets from a distance. Additionally, the Hydra’s very breath was toxic, and simply coming close to the monster and inhaling its fumes could be fatal.

Moreover, lethal venom was infused with the Hydra’s blood, and any contact with it would cause more unthinkable pain and death. However, for Heracles, these obstacles were just minor setbacks. The real danger of battling the Hydra was its regenerative abilities, which made it more powerful with each regeneration.

The Squire of Heracles

Heracles set out on a treacherous journey to Lerna to confront the Hydra, but he was not alone. By his side stood his nephew Iolaus, son of Heracles’ brother Iphicles, who served as his loyal charioteer and weapons bearer. Despite the hardships that befell Heracles, including his madness caused by Hera, Iolaus stood steadfast, never abandoning his uncle. His skills as a charioteer were legendary, and he would later become the first champion of the chariot races at the inaugural Olympic games.

Although Iolaus is often considered Hercules’s loyal squire, he is only mentioned in a few of Heracles’ adventures. During most of Heracles’ adventures, Iolaus is not mentioned, but he is likely present, watching his hero from a distance. As a squire, Iolaus did not typically engage in battle alongside his uncle. Instead, he would have maintained Hercules’s weapons, driven him from one location to the next, and ensured the hero had a hot meal after a long day of battling monsters. However, Iolaus proved essential in Heracles’s battle against the Hydra.

Approaching the Hydra’s Den

As Heracles approached the inhospitable swampy marshlands near Lake Lerna, he began his search for the Hydra’s lair. Heracles’ plan for dealing with the Hydra was simple and direct: find it and strike it with his club until it stopped moving. However, as he delved deeper into the swamps, he noticed something strange. The swamp was unnaturally quiet, devoid of the usual chorus of animal sounds that filled the wilderness. The air was thick with an unbearable stench of sulfur that made Heracles cough and choke. As he pushed on, he discovered the reason for the silence — dead birds, insects, and fish littered the swampy landscape.

Although Heracles was a man of action, he was no fool. Heracles realized that he was approaching the Hydra’s den and that the toxic fumes emanating from them were causing him to choke and kill all the wildlife in the area. So, he made a tactical retreat back to the camp where Iolaus was still setting up. Once there, Heracles covered his mouth with a piece of cloth taken from one of his shirts to protect himself from inhaling the Hydra’s toxic fumes.

Now adequately protected, Heracles embarked on his second journey into the swamp. Despite the cloth protecting him from the lethal poison, it did nothing to diminish the awful sulphuric stench emanating from the Hydra. Following his nose and the trail of dead wildlife, Heracles soon arrived at the now-polluted spring of Amymone, where the Hydra had made its home.

Heracles saw the enormous coiled serpent resting inside a deep cave near the polluted and bubbling spring of Amymon. He realized his strength, speed, or martial skills would not be helpful if he confronted the Hydra in its lair. The cramped caverns would not allow him to dodge and properly attack the massive leviathan. Heracles fired flaming arrows into the Hydra’s den to draw it out. He hoped the arrows would lure the beast out of its cave and possibly injure or kill it before confronting it up close with his club.

Although the Hydra was hit by many arrows and forced out of the cave by the flames’ smoke, it remained unharmed. The serpent began to charge towards Heracles, infuriated at being disturbed from its slumber.

 The Unfair Battle

Heracles, the son of Zeus, did not hesitate for a moment as the Hydra charged towards him. He dropped his bow and ran to confront the monster with his club. Although some accounts and artistic depictions show Heracles with a sword or a sickle instead of his club, the outcome remains unchanged.

Heracles lunged forward and swiftly beheaded one of the Hydra’s many heads. Though he might have felt confident that the battle would end soon, the monster slithered back, and something unexpected happened. The wound where its head was once attached started to sizzle and bubble, and within a few seconds, two new heads emerged from the open neck wound. Each head was as large and fierce as the one Heracles had just destroyed.

Any hope of a swift and decisive triumph was immediately crushed. Each time Heracles succeeded in decapitating one of the Hydra’s heads, two new ones grew in its place. The battle persisted for hours as Heracles evaded the Hydra’s venomous missiles and jumped to avoid its poisonous blood in an attempt to overcome the monster.

The Hydra was not alone during its attack against Heracles as Hera, the Queen of the Olympians, had spent years nurturing it for this very moment. Hera watched the battle between her deadly pet and stepson from high on Olympus. Although Heracles could not directly harm the Hydra, the monster had yet to land a decisive blow against him. To distract Heracles long enough for the Hydra to finish him off, Hera sent a giant crab named Carcinus after him. The giant crustacean emerged from the polluted spring waters, attacking Heracles’ legs and feet with its pincers.

While the Hydra proved almost impossible to kill, the giant crab was comparably easy. After enduring several rounds against its nasty pincers, Heracles managed to land a hefty blow with his club, crushing Carcinus’s shell and killing it.

After eliminating the giant crab, a tired Heracles made his second tactical retreat back to camp. He realized he needed to devise a new plan to defeat the Hydra, which now had nearly 50 heads due to its regenerative abilities. Despite feeling exhausted, Heracles was primarily angry. He believed the giant crab’s sudden appearance was unfair and not according to the rules of battle or the labor he had agreed to undertake. Eurystheus had tasked Hercules to defeat the Lernaean Hydra, not to fight against the Hydra and a pesky giant crab sent by his vengeful stepmother. All of it was simply unfair.

The Strength of Allies

After returning safely to his camp, Heracles complained to Iolaus about his unfair situation. Iolaus agreed with him, and while preparing their dinner, he had a divine epiphany. As he cooked their meal over the fire, he observed how the flames cauterized the bloody meat and devised a plan.

Iolaus reasoned that if the Hydra received assistance in its fight against Heracles, then Heracles should also be allowed help. Although Heracles agreed with Iolaus’s reasoning, he hesitated to involve his nephew in the fight. Heracles was already burdened with the guilt of his family’s deaths and was reluctant to have more familial blood on his hands.

Iolaus promised to assist Heracles in a way that would ensure his safety while helping him defeat the Hydra once and for all. After hearing Iolaus’s plan, Heracles agreed, and they rested for the night. While Hero and Squir slept, Athena, patron guide of heroes, smiled upon them. In some versions of the myth, Athena whispered the brilliant method to defeat the Hydra to Iolaus, while in others, she told it directly to Heracles.

Athena’s assistance did not end there; when Heracles woke up the next morning, he found a golden sword with Athena’s symbol next to him. Although Heracles preferred using his club, he graciously accepted his sister’s gift and brought both weapons to the final battle against the Hydra.

The Final Battle

Heracles and Iolaus approached the Hydra’s den, hoping to finish the monster once and for all. Heracles wielded his club and carried Athena’s sheathed golden sword on his belt, while Iolaus carried only a flaming torch.

Iolaus had discussed his plan several times that morning with Heracles. They planned to attack the Hydra methodically. Heracles would leap forward and sever one of the monster’s heads, and Iolaus would immediately rush in to cauterize the wounded neck with his flaming torch before any new heads could grow back.

Heracles charged forward as the Hydra emerged with over 50 venomous heads from its cave. He had to dodge a flurry of venomous missiles from the Hydra, but he found an opportunity and cut off one of the monster’s heads. Heracles retreated quickly and avoided the fountain of poison blood that gushed from the stump. Iolaus then ran forward and cauterized the neck stump of the Hydra.

Heracles and Iolaus held their breath for a moment as they watched the cauterized Hydra’s neck wriggling and reeling from the fire. Although the Hydra hissed and kept attacking them, nothing grew back. Iolaus’s plan had worked. However, Heracles and Iolaus had to repeat their attack at least another 49 times before they could finally celebrate.

As the afternoon sun began to set, Heracles and Iolaus’s diligent strategy of attacking, retreating, and burning had reduced the Hydra from 50 heads to one. However, nothing seemed to happen despite their repeated attempts to attack the last head with Heracles’ club. After several hours of cutting away at the vestigial heads, Heracles was now facing the original immortal head of the Hydra that could not die.

Heracles ordered his nephew to retreat, dropped his club, and unsheathed Athena’s golden sword. Though he was not a great thinker or strategist, he knew Athena never gave gifts without a purpose. Holding the gleaming sword, he charged forward one last time. Dodging a volley of venom, he launched his final attack, trusting his sister’s gift. The sword hit its mark and sliced through the Hydra’s neck.

Despite being severed from its monstrous body, the Hydra head still hissed and squirmed. The head remained immortal and undying, but now it was helpless to Heracles’ whims. Heracles buried the writhing immortal head deep underground next to the main road through Lerna and placed a boulder over it, trapping it forever.

A Bittersweet Victory

With the boulder marking the Hydra’s living grave, Heracles was victorious and had completed his second labor. As he did with the Neaean lion, Heracles did not miss the chance to utilize his enemy’s remains. He approached the Hydra’s body and dipped all of his arrows in its lethal blood. These poison-coated arrows became one of the hero’s standard weapons, saving his life in future labors. However, they would also be the harbinger of Heracles’ ultimate end.

Hera immortalized her beloved pets, the Hydra and Carcinus, by placing them among the stars as the constellations Hydra and Cancer. In some versions of the myth, the Hydra guards Lake Lerna’s entrances to the underworld after being resurrected.

After defeating the Hydra and purifying the waters of Lake Lerna, Heracles traveled back to Tiryns in Iolaus’s chariot to receive his next task from King Eurystheus. Constant hardships and injustice would mark this hero’s journey. Upon his return, Eurystheus accused Heracles of breaking the rules by receiving assistance from Iolaus and declared the second labor null and void. He then announced that Heracles would have to perform an extra task to make up for his alleged cheating, increasing the number of labors from ten to eleven.

This was not the last time Eurystheus would unfairly take issue with how Heracles approached his tasks. But before Heracles could deal with that matter, he faced his third labor: capturing the Ceryneian Hind.

Queen Elizabeth I’s portraits are full of symbolism. Symbolism has always been an essential aspect of propaganda. As an unmarried Protestant woman in a position of power, Elizabeth needed to find ways to show her power as Queen. Her personal history, such as her mother’s downfall and other societal factors, could have posed an extreme risk to her reign and safety. Images were a powerful tool to ensure that her throne would be safely secured throughout her reign.

A Tumultuous Childhood of Elizabeth I

Queen Elizabeth I knew she needed to be taken seriously as a woman on the throne, but to do so in 16th-century England was no easy task. She knew that her subjects would have preferred a male ruler, so she needed to harness her power where she could to ensure her safety. Creating an image in which she could portray herself as a powerful and capable ruler, or whatever particular message she was trying to send, was a useful tool. Propaganda could strengthen her position and power, and make others less likely to question her right to the throne.

In the 16th century, England was in the midst of religious upheaval. Protestantism had spread to England during her father’s reign. Henry VIII had broken away from the Roman Catholic Church in an attempt to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, in favor of his second wife, Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth’s mother. When the Catholic Pope would not grant him an annulment, he created the Church of England and put himself at the top as Head of the Anglican Church. This second marriage would usher Princess Elizabeth into the world, but her time with her mother would be cut short after the Queen’s notorious execution by beheading in 1536.

Elizabeth was just short of being three years old when her father ordered her mother’s death. She grew up as an illegitimate child, despite her mother being Queen at the time of her birth. The annulment before the execution made her parents’ marriage null—as if it had never been valid in the first place. Later in Elizabeth’s life, her stepmother and sixth wife to Henry VIII, Catherine Parr, convinced the King to return his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession behind his son, Edward, and any children they might have. They did not have children.

After Henry VIII’s death, the throne went to his son, Edward VI, as planned. However, after a short reign with no heirs, Edward died. He made changes to the line of succession in his will, giving the throne to Lady Jane Grey, but a change in succession needed to go through proper legal channels, not simply a last-minute addition to a monarch’s will. A teenage and reluctant Jane Grey served as Queen of England for only nine days before Mary I deposed her and had her executed. After Mary I died childless, Elizabeth took the throne and became Queen Elizabeth I. She had the throne and needed to figure out how to keep it.

This portrait shows a young Elizabeth I from before she became Queen. It is housed at Hever Castle in Kent, where her mother grew up. She is dressed in black cloth with gold embroidery. The fur is ermine, a symbol of royalty, meaning she was probably already added back into the line of succession when it was painted.

Elizabeth I as the Queen of England

With her parents’ marriage being declared null before her mother’s death, she was technically a bastard. To make matters worse, she was Protestant. Her entire reign rested upon the legitimacy of the Church of England, which made her parents’ marriage possible in the first place, due to her father’s previous marriage to Catherine of Aragon within the Catholic faith. This meant that she had to present herself as a legitimate Protestant Queen, no matter her personal beliefs.

This happened during a time of religious conflict, as the Catholics who had felt their country restored under the Catholic Mary I were now nervous under this new Protestant Queen. She showed a surprising amount of religious tolerance, but it was a fine line when her rule rested upon the kingdom’s religion. If Protestantism lost control in England, she would be considered an illegitimate and heretical Queen.

As a woman and a Protestant, she was already treading uncharted territory regarding Queenship. Now, she would face the pressure to marry, which would effectively give her power to her husband. In 16th-century society, a woman was expected to obey her husband, no matter her rank or birthright. After years of courting others to establish herself as a legitimate Queen on the European stage, she declared herself to be married to England itself instead. Although controversial then, this decision allowed her to maintain her power.

In this posthumous depiction from 1682, Elizabeth is seen in Parliament. She is positioned in the middle, the most important figure, marked as Queen by the symbolism surrounding her. She sits under a canopy, reserved for royal family members, holding the scepter and orb. Members of Parliament surround her, and the scene is stately in its order, indicating she was viewed as a Queen who brought peace, order, and stability.

Monarchs have historically put their images onto coins. This was often the only way a monarch’s subjects would see them. Elizabeth I famously depicted herself as young throughout her entire reign, with coins minted during her time as Queen being a prime example. This gold was minted in 1594-96 when Elizabeth would have been in her sixties. She was under extra scrutiny concerning her health, not only because she was a woman and needed to prove herself capable, but also because she had decided not to marry. The Virgin Queen would leave no heir, nor had she named who was next in the line for the throne. As her age climbed in number, so did the anxiety surrounding succession. It was more important than ever to appear youthful, capable, and strong.

The Spanish Armada

In 1588, the Spanish attempted to invade England with their newly built armada, which consisted of 150 ships and 18,000 men. In the 16th century, this was one of the biggest fleets Europe had ever seen, and it was headed for the tiny island of Britain. Today, England is known for its political power, especially from the earlier eras of colonialism. However, in the 16th century, when exploration was just beginning, England was considered a small kingdom on the fringes of European power. A large fleet of ships from a Catholic superpower like Spain would have been a frightening idea for Protestant England.

As the New World became more pressing politically, Spain began to see England as a competitor. They had been claiming the indigenous land of what is now South and Central America, while England had gone further north into today’s New England and Canada. With this tension already at a boiling point, the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots—who was allied with the Spanish and was caught plotting against Elizabeth I—and the English support for the Protestant Netherlands who wanted out from under Catholic Spanish control, pushed the Spanish to take action.

Before the Spanish ships even left Spain, they encountered a massive storm that caused extensive damage to their ships. Repairs were done before they left, but eventually, they made their way up the English Channel. The English ships were able to outmaneuver them due to the way they were built. They were skinnier and lower to the water, making them faster and less likely to capsize. The sides of the ships were lower as well, allowing more opportunities for sending gunfire towards the enemy.

The English defeated the Spanish Armada in an impressive victory, which was commemorated with Elizabeth I’s Armada Portrait. After days of cannon fire back and forth, the English decided to send burning ships into the tightly packed group of Spanish vessels outside of the harbor. The Spanish knew these would be detrimental to their ships, so they left. However, the English had blocked them in the English Channel, and the Spanish were forced to go North so that they could go around and return home by going past the West coast of Ireland. They thought they could stop in Ireland, due to both nations being Catholic, to restock their supplies for the journey home. They were wrong. Upon landing south of Galway, any men who stepped off of the boat were killed. Losses on the Irish coast account for a third of the total ships lost.

In the Armada Portrait, the Queen is seated in the middle, dressed sumptuously, and surrounded by some typical symbols. Pearls drip from her neck, symbolizing her purity as the Virgin Queen. Her dress is dyed a rich, dark black, something only the wealthy could afford. Her lace ruff is larger than life around her neck, which indicates status and fashionable taste according to the era’s styles.

She holds a fan made of feathers in her left hand, while her right hand rests upon a globe. Her finger points to Virginia, the newly established colony in North America, named after her nickname of Virgin Queen. This indicates her confidence on the world stage. She faces the window that shows calm seas, with boats floating prettily on the waves. In the window behind her, a storm creates trouble for the Spanish ships. This sends the message that she brings calm waters to England, and that God saw fit to ruin Spain’s invasion plans.

Typical Symbolism of Elizabeth I’s Portraits

Symbols could range in meaning and purpose. Pearls symbolize purity and virginity and are almost always present in artwork depicting Elizabeth I, especially after she became known as the Virgin Queen. Black and white are often used as a color scheme within her portraits as well, as they symbolize chastity and loyalty, according to the modern institution of Royal Museums Greenwich. Other symbols used in portraits of Elizabeth include dogs that refer to fidelity, columns that allude to rising classical values and their perceived ties to refinement amongst the aristocracy, crowns that symbolize the power of the monarch over the realm, and the Tudor Rose as the official symbol for the dynasty.

There are also various animals like phoenixes that refer to resurrection and endurance, pelicans that stand for motherly love towards her subjects, ermines for royalty and purity, and more. Moons also alluded to her virginity, due to their ancient associations with Artemis, or Diana, who was a virgin goddess and protector of women. Athena, or Minerva, too, could be used as a symbol of virginity, good war strategy, or support for the arts. Olives represented peace, bones and skeletons represented death, and gloves represented elegance.

Queen Elizabeth I’s use of imagery used as propaganda has left a lasting legacy as a patroness of the arts. Her countless commissions not only helped her maintain her power as the Queen of England through the use of symbolism to present herself as strong and capable, but those commissions exist today to shed light on a time period that could otherwise be fairly dark. The paintings of the 16th century tell the story of how Elizabeth needed to be viewed to remain safe on her throne.

According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BCE by twin brothers Romulus and Remus, though one brother would be dead before the city walls were fully raised. The brothers were purportedly the descendants of the Trojans via the hero Aeneas, the son of Aphrodite. The twins were also the sons of Mars, the god of war. This extraordinary lineage helped justify Rome’s right to dominate the surrounding region through military conquest. This article will examine Rome’s founding legend, its origin and purpose, and how likely it is to be historically accurate.

The Legendary Lineage of Romulus and Remus

According to Roman legend, the people of Rome were heirs of Troy, which the Greeks may have destroyed in 1184 BCE. The hero Aeneas was a member of the Trojan royal family, a second cousin of the princes Hector and Paris. He escaped Troy with a group of men, carrying his elderly father Anchises on his back. Aeneas’s mother was the goddess Aphrodite, known as Venus in Rome.

The Trojans wandered for many years looking for a new homeland, stopping in Sicily and Carthage before making their way to the Italian peninsula. There they were initially welcomed. Latinus, king of the Latins, who had no sons, gave Aeneas his daughter Lavinia to marry. This led to conflict as another prince, Turnus, wanted to marry Lavinia. Blood was shed with Venus supporting Aeneas, and Juno, the Roman version of Hera, supporting Turnus. In the end, the two men decide to settle their differences through single combat. Jupiter, the Roman Zeus, convinced Juno to give up her support of Turnus, and Aeneas was successful.

Aeneas then founded the city of Lavinium, named for his wife, and became the leader of the Latins. He was succeeded by his son Ascanius, who built the city of Alba Longa as his capital, on the Alban hills about 30 kilometers (18 miles) from the future city of Rome. Generations passed, and in the 8th century BCE, his descendant Numitor became the king of Alba Longa.

The Twins Cast Out

During the first half of the 8th century BCE, King Numitor of Alba Longa was displaced by his brother Amulius. The new King Amulius received an oracle that a grandson of Numitor would oust him from power, so he made Numitor’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, a Vestal Virgin. Her oath of virginity in the goddess’s service meant that she should never have children. However, one night she was visited by the god Mars, the Roman version of Ares, and eventually gave birth to twin boys, Romulus and Remus.

When Amulius saw the boys, he ordered them thrown into the Tiber River. But like the huntsman in Snow White, the men charged with this duty seem to have been unable or unwilling to complete the task. Rather than throw the boys in the river, they left them by the side of the river, expecting that they would die of exposure.

Romulus and Remus were saved from exposure by a she-wolf, known as the Lupercal, who suckled the boys and protected them until they were found by Faustulus, a shepherd loyal to Numitor. He brought the boys home and raised them with no knowledge of their true identities. Nevertheless, they soon emerged as natural leaders and gathered a band of young fighting men around them.

One day, when the twins were caring for their adopted father’s sheep, they encountered some shepherds of Amulius and got into a fight. Remus was captured and taken before King Amulius. Romulus gathered a band of his followers to rescue Remus, and killed Amulius in the process, allowing Numitor to be restored to power. At some point during this action, Romulus and Remus became aware of their true identities. They may also have been offered the kingship of Alba Longa, which they rejected in favor of establishing their own, new city.

Foundation of Rome

Romulus and Remus decided to establish their city close to the location where they were left as babes and found by the she-wolf. But the pair could not agree on the best place for the city, with Romulus preferring the Palatine Hill and Remus preferring the Aventine Hill.

They decided to leave the decision to the gods and consult auguries to determine the best site. An augury involves consulting the action of birds to divine the desire of the gods. Each brother prepared a sacred space on their respective hills and watched for the signs. Remus later reported seeing six birds, while Romulus reported seeing twelve, therefore claiming that his site had won divine favor. Remus did not agree, saying that he saw his omen first, and therefore had the primary claim.

This led to conflict between the brothers, and they argued. Romulus then ignored his brother and started to dig a trench and build walls around his hill. In retaliation, Remus made fun of Romulus’s wall, eventually jumping over it. This irritated Romulus and his supporters, and either Romulus or one of his supporters killed Remus in anger.

While most versions of the story say that Remus died at the hands of Romulus, in his account, Ovid suggests that it was one of Romulus’s men, called Celer. He says that Remus appeared to his adopted father Faustulus and his wife Acca after his death to complain about Celer, but also praised his brother Romulus for his brotherly affection. This may have been an invention of Ovid to save Romulus from the charge of fratricide. The sources agree that Romulus mourned his brother and granted him full funeral honors.

Nevertheless, Romulus went on to establish his city, which he called Rome in honor of himself. He was also elected the city’s first king by his supporters. This kicked off a period of elected monarchy that lasted around 200 years, from 753 BCE to 509 BCE, when the last king was ousted, and the Republic was established.

Romulus is credited with establishing the basic foundations of the future great city. He fortified the perimeter with the Murus Romuli and set its boundaries with a plow furrow. He then divided his new citizens into three tribes for tax purposes and military service and established the senate. He reportedly made sacrifices to Jupiter at every step to ensure the favor of the god. He also procured wives for his mostly male citizenry by kidnapping women from the neighboring Sabine tribes. Those tribes were incorporated into the Roman population when they resolved the dispute over the kidnapping.

After his death, the Romans came to believe that Romulus underwent apotheosis and ascended to the heavens with the gods.

Honoring Romulus and Remus

Once the Republic was established, the Romans completely rejected the idea of kingship. Checks and balances were put in place to ensure that no single man could gain too much power. While these measures would eventually fail and lead to the dictator perpetuo Julius Caesar and the princeps Augustus, neither would call themselves rex, because the term king was so hated in Rome.

Nevertheless, Rome’s founder and first king was honored among the Romans. From around the 3rd century BCE, the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus became the symbol of Rome.

From around the 1st century BCE, Romulus became associated with the ancient Roman god Quirinus. According to Plutarch’s Life of Romulus, after his disappearance and presumed death, Romulus appeared to a man named Proculus Julius and told him that he was Quirinus and should be worshipped as such. Consequently, the ancient Sabine war god was merged with the deified Romulus.

There is no evidence that Remus was ever singled out as an important figure among the Romans. He was the brother of Romulus and appeared alongside him suckling the wolf, but was never treated individually by the Romans in art or literature.

But What Really Happened?

The story of Romulus and Remus is the legendary story of the foundation of Rome according to the Romans themselves, but does it reflect what really happened? The earliest evidence for the story among the Romans appears in the 3rd century BCE, at which time it was already ancient history. But while the individual figures of Romulus and Remus may be inventions, the story probably reflects elements of the process of the foundation of Rome.

Archaeological evidence suggests that Rome was established as a small settlement of Latins and Sabines in the early 7th century BCE, so a little after the legendary age of Romulus, but not by much. However, the evidence suggests that Alba Longa, apparently a powerful kingdom ruled over by grandfather Numitor, was just a collection of small villages at this time, throwing doubt on this element of the story. Alba Longa was probably chosen to play an important role in the story because it was an important religious center linked to Vesta and Jupiter.

The tribes that came together to establish Rome probably chose the location for practical reasons, rather than in response to childhood trauma. The Tiber provided transport links for trade and the hills were highly defensible. The conflict between Romulus and Remus may represent conflict between the different tribal groups during Rome’s early days.

While Romulus is credited with establishing a grand city fairly quickly, the evidence suggests that Rome remained small until the end of the 7th century BCE when the Etruscans came in and took control of Rome. This is also reflected in the legendary stories of Rome, with Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, an Etruscan, reportedly being elected king of Rome at the end of the 7th century. The Etruscans were a confederation of city-states that extended from Bologna to the Bay of Naples. It seems to be via their influence that the marshes between the Roman hills were drained, roads were built, and the foundations of the grand city of the Republic and Empire were established. They also brought Jupiter to Rome who, under the name Tinia, was their principal god.

The first Capitoline Triad worshipped in Rome was Jupiter, supreme among the Etruscans, Quirinus, an important god among the Sabines, and Mars, an important god among the Italics. Worshipping triads of deities was not common in the region, so this unique formation may reflect the coming together of different tribes and the need to honor all their gods. But this triad was already replaced by the more familiar triad of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Juno Regina, and Minerva by the end of the 6th century BCE.

History vs Legend

The story of Romulus and Remus almost certainly isn’t an accurate historical portrayal of the exact events that led to the foundation of Rome. Nevertheless, the story reflects how the Romans understood their origins and place in the world.

Like Romulus, a descendant of Venus and a son of Mars whose city was blessed through augury and who later became a god himself, the Romans believed that they were uniquely favored by the gods. This divine favor gave them the right to dominate Italy and later much more of the world. Maintaining divine favor was the central tenet of Roman state religion.

Osama bin Laden was a Saudi Arabian millionaire who left his life of privilege to wage war on the United States of America. The notorious mastermind behind the 9/11 attacks of 2001 was killed in 2011 by US Navy Seals in his compound near Abbottabad, Pakistan. Bin Laden was a ruthless architect of mass murder whose actions sparked vicious wars in Afghanistan and Iraq that killed millions. 9/11 triggered a global “War on Terror” that profoundly transformed the moral and political landscape of international legal norms. Bin Laden’s ultimate legacy rests in the hardening of an ideological view of the world that pits “Islam” against “the West.”

Early Life 

Born in 1957 in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Osama bin Laden was the 17th of 52 children born to billionaire Yemeni-Saudi construction magnate, Muhammad bin Laden. He inherited an estimated $25-30 million upon his father’s death when he was 11. 

Raised as a devout Sunni Muslim, he married his 15-year-old cousin at 17 and like many children of the global elite, briefly studied English at Oxford, England in 1971.  He is said to have found the British way of life “morally degenerate.”

While many of his siblings studied abroad, Osama remained in Saudi Arabia. He studied economics, business administration, and civil engineering at King Abdulaziz University in the city of Jeddah. Bin Laden was known for his football skills and love of poetry. 

In Jeddah, he became a student of the radical Islamist scholar, Abdullah Yusef Azzam, and was deeply moved by the works of Islamist revolutionaries, such as Sayyid Qutub. Despite his secular education, Bin Laden remained committed to his religious studies.

Afghanistan

Inspired by his teacher Abdullah Azzam’s call for international Jihad against all apostate and secular regimes, Bin Laden arrived in Afghanistan in 1981 following the Soviet invasion of 1979. 

Bin Laden brought money and construction expertise – he started building roads, bunkers, and encampments for Afghan fighters and refugees. For the first half of the 1980s, He was involved in refugee care on the Pakistan border and took charge of volunteers arriving from the Arab world to take part in “Jihad.” 

Despite exaggerated and heavily mythologized accounts of his military contributions, in the latter half of the 1980s, Bin Laden commanded a respected military unit of “Arab Afghans” and earned respect for his bravery in combat. 

In 1988, he co-founded Al-Qaeda alongside Ayman al-Zawahiri, a militant former doctor from Egypt whom he fought alongside against the Soviets. Unlike domestic-focused Islamist groups, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, Al-Qaeda (“The Base”) was to be avowedly internationalist.

Al-Qaeda

In 1989, after the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, Bin Laden returned to Saudi Arabia. However, infuriated by the Saudi Royal family’s decision to allow US troops to be stationed in the kingdom, following Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait (1990), Bin Laden left for Sudan. 

After five years he was expelled from Sudan in 1996 under US pressure. He returned to Afghanistan. Bin Laden issued a declaration of war against the United States, and in 1998 Al-Qaeda launched its first direct attack against the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania (killing 224 people). The US responded with cruise missiles under the aegis of Operation Infinite Reach. In 2000, Al-Qaeda suicide bombers hit the USS Cole at a port in Yemen killing 17.

Al-Qaeda’s most infamous attack took place on American soil. The 9/11 attacks of 2001 resulted in close to 3,000 deaths. The response came in the form of bloody wars in Afghanistan (2001-2021) and Iraq (2003-2011) and a unilateral reshaping of international law, under the aegis of the US-led “War on Terror.” 

Political Views

Osama bin Laden railed against the “immorality” of drugs, usury, gambling, and homosexuality. He saw Afghanistan under the Taliban as the only truly Islamic country in the Muslim world.

He opposed the “godless” secular nationalism of Saddam Hussein’s Iraq and Hosni Mubarak’s Egypt, and the apostate regimes of Iran and Saudi Arabia. All liberal democratic, communist, and socialist alternatives to a strict, literal translation of Sharia Law were flatly condemned. Yet Bin Laden was no Islamic scholar.

His motivations were more political than religious, his speeches and decrees focused on the injustices inflicted by US foreign policy on Muslims in the Middle East, from Iraq to Palestine. His politics were anti-imperialist and had environmental, gendered, and class dimensions. 

Bin Laden above all embodied profound contradictions. While he spoke the language of social equality, he unashamedly called for violent jihad against all perceived enemies of ‘Islam.’

When we talk about the five good Roman emperors of the Antonine Dynasty, we are actively overlooking Lucius Verus. The five good emperors were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, all of whom succeeded one another and whose period of prosperity was ended by the problematic Emperor Commodus. However, this idealized timeline overlooks Lucius Verus, who served as co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius from the start of the joint reign in 161 CE until Verus’s death in 169 CE. Where does Lucius Verus fit into the story of the Antonine emperors, and why is he so often overlooked?

How Was Lucius Verus Chosen for Power?

Born Lucius Ceionius Commodus on December 15, 130 CE, Lucius was within the imperial fold from his youth.

Adoption was a common strategy used by the Romans to ensure the continuity of Patrician families. Adoption allowed the Julio-Claudians to ensure their dynasty despite the unfortunate deaths of many male family members. Octavian was adopted by his uncle Julius Caesar in his will and went on to become Augustus Caesar. He adopted his grandsons from his daughter Julia and friend Marcus Agrippa, Gaius and Lucius Caesar. When they died, Augustus adopted his stepson Tiberius, on the condition he adopted Germanicus, the grandson of Augustus’s sister Octavia and ally-turned-rival Marcus Antonius. Germanicus also died before he could assume imperial power, which went to his youngest son Gaius Caligula, since his older brothers were dead.

The Antonine emperors took a similar approach, but their familial relations with their adopted heirs were less straightforward. Nerva, an elderly senator made emperor after the assassination of Domitian, the last of the Flavian emperors, adopted the general Trajan, who was not a familial relation. Trajan then adopted Hadrian, who was the son of his cousin.

Hadrian initially adopted Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Lucius’s father, as his heir in 136 CE, who then took the name Lucius Aelius Caesar. This was an extraordinary adoption as he was chosen in place of Hadrian’s presumed heir, Lucius Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, who was his great-nephew and had previously received special status at court. But it came to nothing as Lucius’s father died just two years later.

Following Lucius’s death in 138 CE, Hadrian adopted Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus, who would become the emperor Antoninus Pius later that same year. He was married to Hadrian’s niece Faustina before his adoption. As part of his adoption, Hadrian required him to adopt Marcus Annius Verus, the son of a good friend of Hadrian and a great-great-grandson of Trajan, who would go on to become Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Ceionius Commodus, the son of Hadrian’s previous heir, who would become the emperor Lucius Verus.

Following these complex adoption mechanics, Marcus Aurelius would be the first emperor in almost a century to choose his biological son, Commodus, as his heir. But this would turn out to be a disaster and end the Antonine Dynasty.

Roman Prince

Lucius Verus was recognized as an heir to power from the age of six, alongside Marcus Aurelius, who was ten years his elder. Initially, Verus was betrothed to Antoninus’s daughter Faustina, although she was legally his sister, and Marcus was betrothed to Verus’s sister Ceionia Fabia. But shortly after his succession, Antoninus changed this arrangement and betrothed Marcus to Faustina, with the pair marrying in 145 and having at least 14 children.

Both his superior age and this advantageous marriage marked Marcus Aurelius as the preferred heir, which was logical considering Lucius Verus was still very young. Both boys were educated for power, notably studying under the famous orator Fronto. Letters between both emperors and their old teacher survive, though it is clear from their correspondence that Marcus was his favored pupil.

Marcus was made princeps iuventutis in 139 CE, marking him out as a young heir, and then served as consul in 140 and 145. He joined several priestly colleges, and Antoninus set him up in an imperial palace on the Palatine so that he could learn about life at court. Verus would only assume the consulship in 154, and under Antoninus, received no extraordinary titles other than “son of Augustus.”

From the mid-150s, Marcus would take on increasing administrative duties, while Verus was largely left in the shadows. Marcus helped the elderly emperor in his daily dealings and was made Praetorian Prefect in 156/157, which was one of the most important administrative jobs in Rome.

In 160, both Marcus and Lucius were designated as consuls for the following year, which would keep Marcus one consulship ahead of his junior colleague. Antoninus Pius would die during their consulships in early 161.

Securing Power

When Antoninus Pius died on March 7, 161, the Senate was prepared to declare Marcus Aurelius as the new emperor. However, Marcus said that he would only accept the honor if Verus was granted equal power, and the Senate agreed. This was an important moment in history as it marked the first time that Rome had two emperors. The Senate may have considered it a risk, as it offered the potential for factions and infighting, but they seem to have been in no position to refuse Marcus.

Once they were confirmed by the Senate, both men went to the Praetorians to have themselves confirmed. Reportedly it was Lucius who spoke to the guard, perhaps because Marcus could already count on their support having served as a prefect of the guard. The pair also gave the guard an enormous donative of 20,000 sesterces per man, which was the equivalent of seven years’ pay.

The pair then completed their succession duties by having Antoninus Pius deified as Divus Antoninus. While the Senate had objected to the deification of Hadrian in 138, they seemed to have no problem granting Antoninus Pius the status of a god.

Following the completion of their succession, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus and Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus were ostensibly equal in power, but it was clear to all that Marcus was the senior member of the partnership. According to the Life of Lucius Verus in the Historia Augusta: “Verus obeyed Marcus, whenever he entered upon any undertaking, as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor” (4.2).

Antonine Nero

While Lucius Verus is not vilified in the sources in the same way as Caligula or Domitian, the young princeps, in his early 30s when he came to power, is presented as an Antonine Nero. The Historia Augusta says that “it is agreed that if he did not bristle with vices, no more did he abound in virtues” and suffered from a “laxity of his principles and the excessive license of his life” (3).

While vices such as gambling, womanizing, and surrounding himself with unsavory people are mentioned throughout the sources, his vices are most clearly described when he is sent to Syria to deal with a rebellion there.

Serious problems with Parthia began in 161 CE, when Vologases IV of Parthia invaded the kingdom of Armenia, a client state of Rome, expelling its king and installing his own. While the governor of Cappadocia quickly went in, with the hope of winning glory for himself, within three days he had committed suicide, and his legion had been massacred. The region’s Roman forces were reinforced, strategically weakening the empire’s other borders, and further losses followed. By the end of 161, it was clear that the crisis needed the personal attention of an emperor.

Despite being marked as heir, Marcus Aurelius had no military experience. Unlike previous heirs, he was not sent to the provinces to develop his military experience and reputation. Instead, he stayed in Rome with the emperor. Therefore, it was decided that Lucius Verus should be dispatched, as the younger of the two men and because he had a more rugged disposition. He reportedly excelled at every kind of sport and loved hunting and wrestling. He was not sent alone. The emperor was accompanied by Furius Victorinus, one of the praetorian prefects and a former procurator of Galatia, M. Pontius Laelianus Larcius Sabinus, a former governor of both the Pannonias and Syria, and M. Iallius Bassus, a former governor of Lower Moesia. Marcus Statius Priscus, the experienced governor of Britain, was also sent separately to act as the new governor of Cappadocia.

While in Rome, Lucius’s reported hedonistic tendencies may have been tempered by Marcus’s more austere character. But he seems to have been able to indulge in the luxuries that he loved on the road.

Leaving in the summer of 162, he made his winding way from Italy to Antioch in Syria, stopping to feast, hunt, and enjoy himself at many country houses. As he passed through Greece, stopping at Corinth and Athens, Lucius was reportedly accompanied by musicians and singers, as if on a royal tour rather than heading to deal with a military crisis. As he made his way across the Aegean, Verus reported stopping at famed pleasure resorts at Pamphylia and Cilicia, before eventually arriving at Antioch in late 162 or early 163.

When in Antioch, while he was praised for his management and oversight of the army, he was also described as indulging in a luxurious lifestyle. He was known to gamble, enjoy the company of actors, and waste resources getting dispatches from Rome about his favorite chariot team.

He also reportedly started an affair with a beautiful but low-born Greek woman called Panthea. Among other things, she convinced Verus to shave his beard for her, which resulted in him being taunted. This anecdote is probably meant to demonstrate the power she had over the emperor. In 163 or 164, Marcus dispatched his daughter Lucilla to Ephesus to marry Verus, probably in an attempt to limit the damage being caused by this eastern mistress.

Military Victories

Despite these criticisms, Lucius Verus earned great praise for his exploits in Syria, though much of the credit probably belonged to his generals and commanders.

Lucius started by training the army, which had become soft in the luxurious East. Men becoming soft under Eastern influence is a common trope among Roman authors. He also secured supply lines by digging a canal to open up a new sailing route up the Orontes to Antioch.

In 163, Statius Priscus led a campaign in Armenia that captured the capital Artaxata. This allowed Verus to take the title “Armeniacus,” despite not being involved in the combat. But the emperor had the right to claim credit for the victory, and after a year, Marcus also claimed the title, despite being back in Rome. His delay was probably meant to let Verus enjoy the limelight for a period before reaffirming their imperial hierarchy. When Lucius was hailed “Imperator” the same year, changing his title to Imp. II, Marcus immediately adopted the same title, maintaining their hierarchy.

In 164, the Romans constructed a new capital for Armenia, called Kaine Polis. A new king was installed, Gaius Julius Sohaemus, who was a Roman senator and had links to Persian royalty.

But while the Romans were enjoying success in Armenia, the Parthians interfered with another client kingdom, Osroene, in upper Mesopotamia. In 165, the Romans entered this territory and reinstated the ousted king Mannus. At the end of the year, the Romans conquered the rest of the region, sacking the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Lucius was criticized for this unnecessary destruction, even though Avidius Cassius was in command of the forces. For this success, both Lucius and Marcus were hailed Imperators again, and Lucius took the title “Parthicus Maximus,” which Marcus would again adopt a year later.

In 166, the army, under Cassius, would take the field again, crossing the Tiber River and campaigning into Media. Again, the two emperors would be hailed Imperators, and Lucius would take the title “Medicus.”

The conflict was considered more-or-less won at this time and probably ended because an epidemic that was sweeping through Parthia spread to the Roman army, leaving neither side with the stomach to continue the conflict. But less than 20 years later, the Romans would be back.

Lucius Verus’ Death and Legacy

Lucius Verus returned to Rome in 166, where he would continue the luxurious lifestyle he had become accustomed to during his years in the East. He reportedly took great pleasure in the games and built a tavern in his home to have all-night parties with his friends, who included a troupe of actors.

But this sojourn in Rome was brief as the Germanic Marcomanni tribe invaded Roman territory along the Danube border, which had been weakened by sending reinforcements to the East. In 168, Marcus and Lucius set out for the frontline together. Marcus probably realized he could not afford to be so completely overshadowed by Lucius on the military front. He also, reportedly, did not want to leave the unreliable Lucius alone in Rome.

Again, reportedly Lucius was more interested in enjoying himself on the journey than making war plans, which all fell to Marcus. This initial conflict with Marcomanni was resolved quickly, allowing the emperors to return to Rome before the end of the year. But the following year, the conflict would resume. Marcus would return and eventually die on campaign there in 180 CE.

But Lucius Verus’s time would be even shorter. While returning, the emperors stopped at Aquileia, where Lucius died, either of a stroke or the plague that was brought to Rome by the eastern soldiers. Marcus ensured all honors for his adopted brother, who was given an elaborate state funeral and a place among the gods as Divus Verus.

The story of Lucius Verus is difficult to unpick because of his ties to Marcus Aurelius, considered by the Romans themselves as one of the very best emperors. It was the custom in Roman literature to emphasize the positive qualities of one emperor by comparing them with the negative qualities of another. As Marcus’s junior co-emperor who died long before Marcus, he represents the perfect literary foil for Marcus. This clearly shaped the character of Lucius Verus that we meet in the sources.

Shocking the nation on January 15, 1947, a body was discovered in a Los Angeles neighborhood. Later, it was revealed to be that of 22-year-old Elizabeth Short, and she had been brutally murdered. Short’s case instantly captivated and frightened not only locals but also the imaginations of the nation. The mystique of this beautiful young woman compounded the horror of the scene and the frustration faced by law enforcement as they hit dead end after dead end in the investigation. Still unsolved, Short’s gruesome murder is one that the world is not soon to forget. Here are eleven facts about the Black Dahlia case.

1. The Name Came From a Popular Movie

Even though Short had been identified by law enforcement, the nickname “Black Dahlia” soon became the chief way she and the case were referred to in the press. A 1946 crime film starring Alan Ladd, called The Blue Dahlia, was popular, and coupled with the black clothing Short was rumored to favor, the name emerged.

2. The Woman Who Found the Body Thought It Was a Mannequin

Betty Bersinger was taking her three-year-old daughter for a morning walk when she became the person who discovered the Black Dahlia. When she came upon a white figure lying in the grass, Bersinger said she believed that the way the body was posed and the paleness of the flesh made her think it was a mannequin. The form rested just a few feet off the sidewalk in a vacant lot. However, upon closer inspection, Bersinger was shocked to discover that the body was neatly bisected and organs were present—this was no mannequin. She quickly ran away from the scene to contact the authorities.

3. Despite The Brutality of the Scene, No Blood Was Found

Short’s body was cut in half, and organs had been removed from and left with the body. She had several areas of mutilation on her face and body, including a “Glasgow Smile” carved onto her cheeks. The body had ligature marks at the wrists, ankles, and neck, and the autopsy revealed that she had likely been dead for 10-12 hours when discovered. The cause of death was determined to be cerebral hemorrhage and shock. The hemorrhage was attributed to heavy blows to her face. Despite this, no blood was found at the scene that Bersinger discovered. This indicated to authorities that the murder and abuse had likely occurred elsewhere and that the body had been transported and intentionally dumped.

4. Hoping to Cover Their Tracks, The Killer Used Gasoline

Though there was no denying the damage that had been inflicted on Short’s body, her murderer made efforts to ensure that there was no evidence of their involvement in the crime. The body was found to have been wiped with gasoline in an effort to remove fingerprints. The case evolved further when, just over a week after the body was discovered, an envelope was mailed and addressed to the local media. It included a note stating, “Here is Dahlia’s belongings,” along with Short’s birth certificate, address book, and business cards. The items, like the body, had been wiped with gasoline in an effort to remove trace evidence. No significant leads erupted from the recovery of Short’s possessions, but police officers began contacting men from the address book to remove them from suspicion. Seventy-five interviews were conducted, but no one was arrested.

5. Short Was Identified via a Fingerprint Database

Short’s body was identified only 56 minutes after her fingerprints were taken, remarkable in an age before the internet. Her fingerprints appeared in two databases. The first was as a result of a job application at Army Camp Cooke, the second from a 1943 arrest in which she was nabbed for underage drinking at nineteen. Short’s mug shot was provided to the press and added fuel to the fire of rumors that began spreading about the young woman. Short was later officially identified by her mother, Phoebe, at the morgue.

6. Short’s Mother Learned of Her Daughter’s Death in a Cruel Way

While Elizabeth Short lived and worked in California, her mother remained in her hometown in Massachusetts. Before law enforcement had a chance to contact her mother Phoebe or any of Elizabeth’s four sisters, the press beat them to it.

A reporter from the Los Angeles Examiner called Phoebe on the telephone and began prying her for information about Elizabeth’s life. The reporter claimed that Phoebe’s daughter had won a beauty contest and they were looking for details to publicize about the winner. After Phoebe had shared some details, the reporter cruelly revealed his true reason for calling: her daughter had been brutally murdered.

The paper then flew Phoebe to California to identify her daughter’s body but kept her guarded and hidden to the best of their ability to prevent other members of the media from gaining access. Elizabeth’s death and the related investigation were front-page news around the country for several weeks.

7. Baseless Rumors Spread About the Victim, Titillating Media Audiences

Due to a news media hungry for a salacious story and her shocking demise, Elizabeth Short soon gained a tragic reputation. There were rumors that she was a prostitute, “man-crazy,” and a party girl. However, despite her arrest as a teenager, Short did not drink, smoke, or swear. She was known to frequent social hotspots with friends, but there is no evidence of a life of sexual deviance.

Short had come to California, as many young women did, hoping to become a successful actress. However, she had yet to realize her dreams, so she worked at Camp Cooke and as a waitress. Originally from Medford, Massachusetts, another reason she had traveled to California was with hopes of reconciling with her father, who had left her family when she was young.

Unfortunately, they were unable to repair their relationship, and Short struck out on her own. She was briefly engaged to Major Matthew Gordon, but he was killed in 1945 as World War II was winding down. Despite her sensationalized image, Elizabeth Short was a fairly typical woman of her era, with hopes and ambitions.

8. Hundreds of Officers & False Confessions Were Involved in the Case

The Black Dahlia case may be one of the country’s most famous cold cases, but it wasn’t for lack of effort by law enforcement. Over 750 investigators from varying agencies were involved in the case but to no avail. Hundreds of interviews were conducted, and a $10,000 reward was offered for information about the case. Still, no major progress was made in the case, with the glaring lack of physical evidence a major contributor. Further muddling the investigation was the fact that more than 60 people came to the police and falsely confessed that they had committed the crime.

9. Medical Students Became Murder Suspects

Elizabeth Short’s body was neatly bisected before it was disposed of by the killer. As a result, law enforcement began to suspect that the killer may have had medical training. The cuts on Short’s body were extremely precise, leading investigators to believe that the offender had experience in the healthcare field. The attention turned to possible suspects with medical backgrounds, and the investigators served a warrant at the University of Southern California medical school. However, this search turned up nothing of merit, and the lead was abandoned.

10. Two Different Authors Think Their Father Was the Killer

Despite the police’s lack of progress, armchair detectives were and continue to be hard at work on the case. In fact, two different people have postulated that their own fathers were the killer.

Former LAPD detective Steve Hodel believes his father, Doctor George Hodel, was involved. Dr. Hodel was known to have sadistic proclivities, including a dark basement in his home where he was known to engage in questionable activities and abuse his children.

Hodel was even recorded on tape saying, “Supposin’ I did kill the Black Dahlia. They can’t prove it now,” but was never treated as a suspect. While the younger Hodel’s claims are somewhat controversial, the case for Dr. Hodel’s involvement has been called “compelling.”

In 1995, Janice Knowlton wrote a book titled Daddy Was the Black Dahlia Killer. She claims that at age 10, she witnessed her father beat Short to death with a hammer and that she accompanied him to dispose of the body. However, her account has been discredited by family members and reporters over the years.

11. Is Black Dahlia Linked to Another Case?

Some people suspect that the Black Dahlia murder may be connected to other murders that took place in the US around the same time. On February 10th, 1947, a young woman named Jeanne French was also murdered in Los Angeles. Known as the “Lipstick Murder,” French’s death was almost instantly tied to Short’s death in the media. Some even speculated that George Hodel was responsible. French’s murder was never solved, either.